Computerized assessment in neuropsychology: A review of tests and test batteries

This article contains detailed reviews of 13 computerized neuropsychological and performance test batteries and six stand-alone computer tests. Tasks found on these instruments are described and tables illustrate which batteries employ which measures. In addition to issues of reliability and validity, special considerations apply to computerized assessment. These issues are discussed and readers are provided information to help them assess computerized tests in relation to their particular clinical and research needs. Since many computerized tests were developed as performance assessment tools, the relationship between performance and neuropsychological assessment is examined.     

Language preference and reinforcing efficacy of praise in bilingual children with disabilities

We conducted a stimulus preference assessment to identify preference for praise delivered in English versus Spanish for bilingual students. Next, a concurrent-operant reinforcer assessment was used to evaluate the reinforcer efficacy of praise in each language. Participants showed limited to no preference for one language over another. One participant showed a slight preference for Spanish praise and Spanish praise functioned as a slightly more potent reinforcer. If a participant did not prefer a specific language of praise (i.e., undifferentiated preference or equal percentage of approaches), both languages were considered to be similarly reinforcing.     

Further evaluation of low-ranked items in stimulus-choice preference assessments

The generality of the findings reported by DeLeon, Iwata, and Roscoe (1997) was examined by conducting two stimulus-choice preference assessments, the second of which evaluated low-ranked items from the initial assessment. Results for the 2 participants suggested that supplementary assessments of low-ranked items may be useful for identifying a wider variety of reinforcing stimuli.     

Leiter-3 generalizability in Scandinavia

The Leiter-3 is a nonverbal assessment that evaluates cognitive abilities and has been adapted for use in Scandinavia. Generalizability of United States-based normative scoring for use with the Scandinavian population was evaluated. Leiter-3 scores from a sample of Scandinavian students were compared with scores obtained from the Leiter-3 standardization sample, controlling for confounding variables, across ages, using mixed-methods analysis. A Scandinavian-population-based sample was created from Leiter-3 standardization data and norms were constructed and were used to generate standardized scores from the sample data. Results suggest that overall the Scandinavian test-takers score higher than American test-takers, but that differences between groups were minimized when controlling for factors that may influence cognitive performance. Creating Scandinavian based scores was not effective at reducing gaps in performance, suggesting that differences in performance between the different populations may be attributable to factors other than those typically controlled for when constructing standardized tests. Implications of these results and recommendations for Leiter-3 adaptation are reviewed.     

Applying Evidence-Centered Design for the Development of Game-Based Assessments in Physics Playground

Game-based assessment (GBA) is a specific use of educational games that employs game activities to elicit evidence for educationally valuable skills and knowledge. While this approach can provide individualized and diagnostic information about students, the design and development of assessment mechanics for a GBA is a nontrivial task. In this article, we describe the 10-step procedure that the design team of Physics Playground (formerly known as Newton's Playground) has established by adapting evidence-centered design to address unique challenges of GBA. The scaling method used for Physics Playground was Bayesian networks; thus this article describes specific actions taken for the iterative process of constructing and revising Bayesian networks in the context of the game Physics Playground.     

Dimensional and Cross‐Cutting Assessment in the DSM‐5

A significant proposed change to the 5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM‐5) that will significantly affect the way counselors diagnose mental disorders is the addition of dimensional assessments to the categorical diagnoses. The author reviews the current DSM's (4th ed., text rev.; American Psychiatric Association, 2000 ) categorical classification system, describes the proposed dimensional and cross‐cutting assessments, and provides implications about clinical utility and user acceptability of a dimensional diagnostic approach.     

Character Assessment: An Examination of Leadership Levels

This paper discusses character assessment from a leadership level perspective. The organization studied is developing a leadership model for the next century. One of the leadership traits identified as essential was character. Approximately one thousand managers in the company were given two character assessment instruments via a Web-based medium. Significant differences were found between early-, mid-, and mature-level managers with an increasing trend in character traits across the levels. This research is consistent with Katz and Kahn's (1976) levels of leadership research.     

THE FUNCTIONS OF ASSESSMENT: IMPLICATIONS FOR SELECTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF DEVICES FOR ASSESSING REPERTOIRES IN CLINICAL,EDUCATIONAL, AND OTHER SETTINGS

An attempt is made to identify the many different functions that assessment of an individual's repertoire can serve. Implications of these functions for the character of and evidence about assessment devices are suggested. The functions fall into two general groups, those which influence decisions regarding an individual learner, and those which influence policy, program development, and scientific knowledge. The first group of functions is presented in a rough chronological sequence such that they form a “behavioral assessment funnel,” beginning with functions involving broad-band assessment to identify likely persons and skill areas, and narrowing to the precise pinpointing, monitoring, and follow-up functions. The contribution of behavior analysis and behavior therapy to assessment methodology in this sequence is identified as well as the areas where more traditionally conceived methods are still useful. The second group of functions and behavioral contributions to it are then discussed.     

Assessing self-report of pain: A comparison of two recording procedures

Intensive vs. reduced demand self-monitored pain levels were compared in nine pain patients. Each patient self-monitored pain intensity on a 6-point scale every 2 hr. Overall, daily mean and maximum pain levels were calculated for each patient (1) across all intervals (intensive self-monitoring) and (2) four times per day, at meal times and bedtime (reduced-demand self-monitoring). Differences were found to be negligible. The reduced-demand procedure produced data that were closely representative of pain fluctuations indicated in the more intensive bihourly ratings. Results are discussed in terms of the representativeness and standardization in pain self-monitoring as well as possible enhancement of recording compliance through the use of the less demanding four times per day procedure.Portions of these data were presented at the meeting of the Association for Behavior Analysis, Dearborn, June 1979.     

Beautiful faces in pain: Biases and accuracy in the perception of pain

Abstract

The impact of appearance-based information on judgments about the psychological functioning of pain patients was investigated. Video-tapes of low back pain patients experiencing pain were used as stimulus materials. Subjects viewed silent video clips and photographs of the patients' faces and made judgments about the functioning of these patients. These judgments were affected both by patient physical attractiveness and gender. Physically attractive patients and male patients were judged to be functioning better than physically unattractive and female patients. The judgments were reasonably described as biased because the perceived differences about patients varying in attractiveness and sex were not associated with measures of actual patient functioning.     

Four fatal flaws of brain injury assessment in the cross-cultural context

This analytical review serves to highlight pitfalls clinicians in multicultural contexts may encounter when using normed ability tests for the assessment of cognitive dysfunction due to brain injury. Four sources of erroneous practice are: (i) Failure to recognize within-race group heterogeneity on cognitive test performance in association with factors such as quality of education; (ii) Lack of rigorous attention being paid to the exact mode of test administration used in a derived normative base to be used for assessment purposes; (iii) Estimating an expected level of performance for an individual on diverse cognitive tests based on an IQ score; (iv) Adopting a thoroughly rule-bound actuarial approach to test interpretation, over a contextually based clinical approach. Even with locally derived norms, the validity of actuarially based interpretive conclusions in the absence of a conceptually coherent case analysis is not supported.     

The impact of high- and low-preference stimuli on vocational and academic performances of youths with severe disabilities

Pictorial and tangible paired-stimulus preference assessments were compared with 4 adolescents with developmental disabilities. In the tangible assessment, two stimuli were placed in front of the participant on each trial; in the pictorial assessment, two line drawings were placed in front of the participant on each trial. Approach responses were recorded for each assessment. The assessments generated similar preference hierarchies for all participants. Reinforcer assessments confirmed that response rates were higher when access to high-preference items was available than when low-preference items were available. Implications for assessing preferences and selecting items to be used in training programs are discussed.     

Sex Offender Assessment Procedures: A South African Comparison

This study reports on the results of a reflective case analysis of a first generation assessment procedure of a chronic offender. The assessment focused on offender's experiential world and his pathway to crime, including precipitating crime risk factors as well as treatment needs to direct an intervention. The results of this assessment are compared with the results of a third-generation appraisal scale to evaluate the corresponding and/or different findings of these assessments. Findings suggest comparability of corresponding assessment indicators, suggesting that first and third generation assessment techniques can be integrated in corrections rehabilitation.     

Assessing object-to-picture and picture-to-object matching as prerequisite skills for pictorial preference assessments

Tangible and pictorial paired-stimulus (PPS) preference assessments were compared for 6 individuals with developmental disabilities. During tangible and PPS assessments, two edible items or photographs were presented on each trial, respectively, and approach responses were recorded. Both assessments yielded similar preference hierarchies for 3 participants who could match pictures and objects but different hierarchies for 3 participants who could not. Reinforcer assessments verified that items identified as high preference on PPS assessments functioned as reinforcers only for participants with matching skills.     

Incremental Validity of Cognitions in a Clinical Case Formulation: An Intraindividual Test in a Case Example

Incremental validity, the ability of a measure to predict or explain variance over and above other measures, is an important psychometric characteristic of standardized measures, but has received little attention idiographically. Idiographic assessment may be an important part of developing a clinical case formulation, guiding treatment by developing an individualized understanding of the variables that trigger and maintain distress. This study examined whether the idiosyncratic cognitive schema hypothesized by a clinician in a cognitive case formulation explained distress incrementally over that of situational triggers. Using daily ratings of situational triggers, idiosyncratic cognitions, and distress, the incremental validity of cognitions in predicting each of six distress measures was tested in a case example using dynamic time series regression. The incremental variance explained by cognitions varied across the distress measures, suggesting that, in this case example, targeting thoughts and beliefs for treatment may be important for only certain types of distress.

Use of the Personality Assessment Inventory in Assessment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Women

This study investigated the utility of the Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI) for the assessment of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Participants were 55 community-residing adult women who were administered a comprehensive battery that included the PAI and the Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale (CAPS). Participants were classified as either PTSD or non-PTSD based on the CAPS, and PAI profiles were compared between the two groups. Significant group differences were found for seven PAI clinical scales (Anxiety, Depression, Anxiety-Related Disorders, Somatic Complaints, Paranoia, Borderline Features, and Schizophrenia), one validity scale (Negative Impression), and two treatment scales (Nonsupport and Treatment Rejection). When all PAI scales and component subscales are considered, the largest group differences were found for the physiological subscale of the Depression scale (DEP-P) and the Traumatic Stress subscale of the Anxiety-Related Disorders scale (ARD-T). ARD-T and DEP-P also demonstrated excellent diagnostic utility. Finally, correlations between PAI scales and four CAPS symptom clusters provided additional validity evidence, in particular supporting a distinction between effortful avoidance and numbing. Taken together, these results support the use of the PAI in the assessment of PTSD.This study was the basis of a Masters thesis for Meghan McDevitt-Murphy. Portions of this study were presented at the annual meeting of the Association for Advancement of Behavior Therapy, November 2000.