Frames of reference for self-evaluation of ability in mathematics

Measures of eight frame-specific self-evaluations of ability in mathematics were used to predict general mathematics self-concept and self-efficacy. Participants were 900 Norwegian students in Grade 6 (n = 277), Grade 9 (n = 236), Grade 11 (n = 263), and adult students attending senior high school (n = 124). Four items measured frame-specific self-evaluation of achievement based on external frames of reference whereas four items measured frame-specific self-evaluation based on internal frames of reference. Regression analyses were used to test relations between the frame-specific self-evaluations and general mathematics self-concept and self-efficacy. The analyses indicated that self-evaluation based on comparison with other students in class (an external frame of reference) and on comparison of mathematics achievement with achievement in other school subjects (an internal frame of reference) were robust predictors of both mathematics self-concept and self-efficacy. The analyses also indicated that students are using multiple frames of reference when evaluating their mathematics ability. Implications of the result for the internal-external frame of reference model are discussed.     

Impetus for worship: an exploratory study of adolescents' idol adoration behaviors

The objective of this article is to explore the idolization behaviors of Taiwanese adolescents. The study gathered 1,636 questionnaires from 13 senior high schools across northern, central, southern, and eastern Taiwan. The results indicate that adolescents' gender correlates with the idol type they choose to adore when the idol is male. This study summarizes "exterior," "interior," "wealth," and "athlete" as four underlying idol traits attracting adolescents. Various types of idols are considered to be significantly different on these four traits. The impacts of the four traits on adolescents' worship levels are nonsymmetrical. While the traits of exterior and athlete are worship facilitators, the trait of wealth is a prohibitor. By contrast, the trait of interior is neutral and has no effect on worship levels. Furthermore, adolescents are involved in higher levels of worship when the idol is a media star or is the opposite gender of the adolescent. Generally, adolescents' worship levels are heightened by the illusion of a perfect idol, indicating nonrational worship behaviors. Implications regarding the association between adolescents' cognitive abilities and idols' traits are discussed for future research.     

Mother-child communication about location: giving and following directions for finding hidden objects

We conducted 2 experiments to examine how mothers structure directions to young children for finding hidden objects and how young children use these directions to guide their searches. In Experiment 1, we examined the reference frames mothers use to communicate with their 2.5-, 3-, and 3.5-year-old children about location by asking mothers to verbally disambiguate a target hiding container from an identical nontarget hiding container. We found that mothers' reference frame use was primarily governed by the relative proximity of the target container to the landmark and themselves. Older children were more successful in following directions than were younger children, and children were more likely to search successfully in response to a person than to a landmark frame of reference. In Experiment 2, we further investigated how 3-year-old children follow directions involving person and landmark frames of reference by asking mothers to use either only themselves or only the landmark to describe the target location. Children in the person reference frame condition successfully followed their mother's directions when the target was relatively close to the mother, but not when the target was relatively far from the mother. Children in the landmark reference frame condition were at chance regardless of the relative proximity of the target to the landmark. The discussion focuses on the roles of spatial proximity and reference frames in mother-child spatial communication.     

The influence of the acoustic context on vertical sound localization in the median plane

The influence of background sounds (frames) on vertical localization of single sound sources (targets) was examined in four experiments. Loudspeakers (five targets and four frames) were positioned in the median plane, ranging from +30 degrees to -30 degrees above and below the subject's ear level. The subjects determined the vertical position of the targets by either verbal judgments or manual pointing. Frame and target sounds were presented concurrently or successively with a 1-sec interval; both consisted of (1) 300-Hz square waves, (2) noise, or (3) targets of noise and frames of 300-Hz square waves. Particularly in the second condition, the subjects consistently shifted the apparent target positions away from the frame locations. This contrast effect persisted even 1 sec after the offset of the frames. No effect was found with different waveforms for the frame and the target. Results are related to recent findings indicating a similar effect in the azimuthal dimension. Possibly the effect is based on a mechanism in which the auditory system adapts to recently heard sound source positions.     

不同框架下的视觉定位

本实验探讨了对置于正方形、等边三角形和圆中的刺激点所进行的１点定位、２点定位、３点定位,并比较了在定位有框架和定位无框架时的情况。结果发现：（１）在刺激呈现时间为１００ｍｓ和３００ｍｓ时．在３种定位任务中,当定位有框架时被试定位的绝对误差均小于定位无框架的。（２）在两种呈现时间下被试在３种定位任务中的绝对误差均处于同一水平,表现出现了视觉定位中的结构效应,并且几个不同的框架没有不同的作用。     

Self-corrected elaboration and spacing effects in incidental memory

The present study investigated the effect of self-corrected elaboration on incidental memory as a function of types of presentation (massed vs spaced) and sentence frames (image vs nonimage). The subjects were presented a target word and an incongruous sentence frame and asked to correct the target to make a common sentence in the self-corrected elaboration condition, whereas in the experimenter-corrected elaboration condition they were asked to rate the appropriateness of the congruous word presented, followed by free recall test. The superiority of the self-corrected elaboration to the experimenter-corrected elaboration was observed only in some situations of combinations by the types of presentation and sentence frames. These results were discussed in terms of the effectiveness of the self-corrected elaboration.     

The Influence of Episodic and Thematic Frames on Policy and Group Attitudes: Mediational Analysis

An experiment examined how episodic and thematic political message frames affect attitudes toward older adults and Social Security. When exposed to messages about abolishing Social Security, participants exposed to episodic frames were significantly more likely to endorse message‐consistent attitudes than participants exposed to a thematic frame. In mediation analyses, an episodic frame featuring a counterstereotypical exemplar increased endorsement of individual responsibility for retirement planning, which then led to more negative attitudes toward Social Security. These effects did not occur with a stereotypical exemplar in an episodic frame. The same mediated pathway influenced attitudes toward older adults in a more complex manner. Results provide support for individual responsibility attributions as a mediating mechanism underlying the effects of certain episodic frames.     

Finding the Right Value: Framing Effects on Domain Experts

By defining the essence of a policy problem, an issue frame shapes how individuals think about a political issue. In this research, we investigate framing effects among domain experts, an understudied yet increasingly important set of individuals in the policymaking process. Because domain experts have extensive and highly structured knowledge on a particular topic, they are likely to actively process issue frames to which they are exposed. Consequently, we hypothesize that frames consistent with experts' values will be particularly influential, whereas frames inconsistent with their values will lead to contrast effects. We test our hypotheses on a unique set of domain experts by examining professional farmers' attitudes toward no‐till agriculture. Using an experimental design, we find evidence that environmental values interact with frames to influence farmers' interest in no‐till, especially when farmers are exposed to a novel frame.     

情绪和任务框架对自我和预期他人决策时风险偏好的影响

两个实验考察了情绪和任务框架对自我和预期他人决策时风险偏好的影响。结果表明:(1)获益框架下,悲伤情绪比愉悦情绪诱发更强的风险偏好,自我决策比预期他人决策表现出更强的风险偏好;(2)损失框架下,愉悦情绪比悲伤情绪诱发更强的风险偏好,预期他人决策比自我决策表现出更强的风险偏好;(3)在自我决策时,愉悦情绪在损失框架下比在获益框架下诱发了更强的风险偏好,悲伤情绪在获益框架下比在损失框架下诱发了更强的风险偏好;在预期他人决策时,无论是愉悦情绪还是悲伤情绪,损失框架均比获益框架诱发了更强的风险偏好。     

Violent Attitudes and Deferred Academic Aspirations: Deleterious Effects of Exposure to Rap Music

The purpose of this study was to assess the effects of exposure to rap music on the attitudes and perceptions of young African-American males. Subjects u were exposed to violent rap music videos, nonviolent rap music videos, or no music videos (controls). They read two vignettes, involving: (a) a violent act perpetrated against a man and a woman, and (b) a young man who chose to engage in academic pursuits to achieve success, whereas his friend, who was unemployed, "mysteriously" obtained extravagant items (i.e., a nice car, nice clothes). Results indicated, first, that when compared to subjects in the nonviolent exposure and control conditions, subjects in the violent exposure conditions expressed greater acceptance of the use of violence. Second, when compared to subjects in the control condition, subjects in the violent condition 'reported a higher probability that they would engage in violence. Third, when compared to the controls, subjects in the violent exposure condition expressed greater acceptance of the use of violence toward the woman. Finally, when compared to the controls, subjects in the rap video exposure conditions were more' likely to say that they wanted to be like the materialistic young man and were less confident that the other young man would achieve his educational goals. Possible basis for and implications of these findings are discussed.     

A note on the development of recall of spatial location

Recall of spatial location was studied with 5, 8, 12--13, and 17--18 year old subjects. Pictures of objects were shown one at a time in one of the four quadrants of a projection screen which was either blank (NF) or divided by a cross into four quadrants (F). The presence of the frame (F) did not affect item recall, but facilitated location recall more, the younger the subjects. Intentional learning of location was superior to incidental learning in the youngest but not in older children. The results are in agreement with Bryant's (1974) analysis of perceptual development which emphasizes the use of external spatial frames of reference in the encoding of attributes of visual objects in young children.     

Changes across age groups in self-choice elaboration effects on incidental memory

The present study investigated age differences in the effects of a self-choice elaboration and an experimenter-provided elaboration on incidental memory. Adults, sixth grade, and second grade subjects chose which of two sentence frames the target fit better in a self-choice elaboration condition. They then judged whether each target made sense in its sentence frame in the experimenter-provided elaboration, then did free recall tests. Only adults recalled better the targets with an image sentence with self-choice elaboration, rather than experimenter-provided elaboration. However, self-choice elaboration was far superior for the recall of targets with nonimage sentences only for second graders. Thus, the effects of self-choice elaboration were determined both by age and by type of sentence frame.     

Shape from shading in different frames of reference

It has often been reported that, in the absence of information about the direction of illumination, people interpret surface convexities and concavities in accordance with the assumption that illumination comes from above. However, 'above' could mean with reference to gravity, the head or the retina. Yonas et al reported that four-year-old infants use the head more than gravity as the frame of reference in interpreting surface relief but that seven-year-olds make about equal use of the two frames of reference. The potency of these two frames of reference when acting separately and when pitted against each other was measured on adult subjects. For all subjects the 'assumption' about the direction of illumination was predominantly with respect to the head. The gravitational frame was used only when the headcentric frame was irrelevant, and then not consistently.     

Large systematic deviations in a bimanual parallelity task: further analysis of contributing factors

Previous studies showed that what subjects haptically perceive as parallel deviates largely from what is actually physically parallel [Perception 28 (1999) 1001; Acta Psychol. 109 (2002) 25; Perception 28 (1999) 781]. It also turned out that the deviations were strongly subject-dependent. It was hypothesized that what is haptically parallel is decided in a frame of reference intermediate to an allocentric and an egocentric one. The purposes of the present study were to collect more evidence for this hypothesis and to investigate the factor(s) that determines the specific weighting between the two reference frames. We found a highly significant reversal of a haptic oblique effect (in context: larger systematic deviations for oblique orientations) for subjects with large deviations. This reversal provides convincing evidence that an intermediate frame of reference is used for the decision of haptic parallelity. Contrary to common expectation, several factors that might have been of influence on the weighting of the two frames of reference, such as arm length, arm span, shoulder width, turned out to be irrelevant. Surprisingly, the only factors that seem to be of influence are gender and job experience or education.     

Stimulus-response compatibility with wheel-rotation responses: Will an incompatible response coding be used when a compatible coding is possible?

Three experiments were conducted in which subjects responded to left-right tones with clockwise-counterclockwise rotations of a steering wheel using one of two stimulus-response assignments. When the hands were at the bottom of the wheel, where hand movement is opposite to wheel movement, subjects coded responses according to the frame that yielded a compatible mapping when the instructions did not emphasize either hand or wheel movements (Experiment 1). When instructions emphasized hand movements, responses were coded relative to the hand-referenced frame (Experiment 2), and when the wheel controlled a visual cursor, responses were coded relative to a cursor-referenced frame (Experiment 3). Coding with respect to these frames occurred even when the resulting mapping was incompatible.     

Psychosocial stress enhances time-based prospective memory in healthy young men

Forgetting of intentions (such as to take one's medication) is the most frequent everyday memory failure. No study so far has looked into the possible consequences stress might exert on memory for intentions (i.e., prospective memory). Twenty healthy young male adults were exposed to a psychosocial stress test and a non-stress condition. After a delay of 15 min, a time- and an event-based prospective memory task were administered during the peak of cortisol concentrations. Results show that participants performed significantly better in the time-based memory task after stress in comparison to the non-stress condition. In contrast, there was no stress effect on event-based prospective memory. The results demonstrate that prospective memory might be enhanced when participants are exposed to stress prior to the memory task and that this effect is associated to stress-related glucocorticoid effects.     

Remembering object position in the absence of vision: egocentric, allocentric, and egocentric decentred frames of reference

In three experiments we examined whether memory for object locations in the peri-personal space in the absence of vision is affected by the correspondence between encoding and test either of the body position or of the reference point. In particular, the study focuses on the distinction between different spatial representations, by using a paradigm in which participants are asked to relocate objects explored haptically. Three frames of reference were systematically compared. In experiment 1, participants relocated the objects either from the same position of learning by taking as reference their own body (centred egocentric condition) or from a 90 degrees decentred position (allocentric condition). Performance was measured in terms of linear distance errors and angular distance errors. Results revealed that the allocentric condition was more difficult than the centred egocentric condition. In experiment 2, participants performed either the centred egocentric condition or a decentred egocentric condition, in which the body position during the test was the same as at encoding (egocentric) but the frame of reference was based on a point decentred by 90 degrees. The decentred egocentric condition was found to be more difficult than the centred egocentric condition. Finally, in experiment 3, participants performed in the decentred egocentric condition or the allocentric condition. Here, the allocentric condition was found to be more difficult than the decentred egocentric condition. Taken together, the results suggest that also in the peripersonal space and in the absence of vision different frames of reference can be distinguished. In particular, the decentred egocentric condition involves a frame of reference which seems to be neither allocentric nor totally egocentric.     

Mental rotation under head tilt: Factors influencing the location of the subjective reference frame

We report five experiments on the effect of head tilt on the mental rotation of patterns to the “upright.” In Experiment 1, subjects rotated alphanumeric characters, displayed within a circular surround. Experiment 2 was similar except that the character was an unfamiliar letter-like symbol. In Experiment 3, subjects again rotated alphanumeric characters, but they were displayed within a rectangular frame tilted 60° to the right. Experiment 4 was similar, except that the subjects were instructed to rotate the characters to the “upright” defined by the tilted frame. In all four experiments, the subjects performed the task with their heads either upright or tilted 60°. In Experiment 5, subjects had their heads and bodies tilted 90°, and rotated alphanumeric characters displayed within a circular surround. In all except Experiment 4, analysis of response latencies revealed that the subjective vertical lay closer to the gravitational than to the retinal vertical, although it was somewhat displaced in the direction of the head tilt—more so in Experiments 2 and 3 than in Experiment 1, and more so still in Experiment 5. In Experiment 4, instructions to adopt the axes of the frame land thus of the retina) succeeded in bringing the subjective vertical closer to the retinal than to the gravitational vertical, although the subjective vertical was still some 20° on average from the gravitational vertical. The results show that the subjective reference frame is distinct from both gravitational and the retinal frames, and that the gravitational frame exerts the stronger influence. They also argue against the primacy of a “retinal factor” in the perception of orientation.     

Affect as a mediator of attributional egotism

A three-stage model of the relationships among achievement outcomes, outcome-related affect, attribution, and emotion is tested in two studies. It is suggested that success and failure elicit positive and negative affective states due to prior conditioning. These affective states then lead to an attribution process that serves to defend and enhance self-esteem. Next, emotional labels are chosen that are consistent with the affective states and the attributions. Two studies were designed to test the proposed relationships among achievement outcomes, affective states, and attributions. In the first study, subjects received information indicating that they were strongly or mildly aroused as a result of receiving outcome feedback on an achievement task. The results indicated that low arousal reduced egotistical attributions to internal factors. In the second study, subjects either succeeded or failed on an achievement task. Half of the subjects were provided with an opportunity to misattribute the arousal elicited by their outcomes to an irrelevant source. Subjects in the misattribution condition made less egotistical attributions to external factors than subjects who were given no opportunity to misattribute their arousal. The results of both studies suggest that outcome-related affect mediates the relationship between outcomes and attributions in achievement situations.     

受苦的上帝与人的解放──莫尔特曼的政治神学

莫尔特曼的政治神学是其希望神学的逻辑延伸与必要组成部分。政治神学的特点是面向实践。它是关于复活与十字架受难的辩证和谐统一。政治神学的上帝是被钉十字架的、受苦的上帝。奥斯维辛之后的上帝不再是战无不胜的。上帝与不信神的、被上帝遗弃者结合。解放是指从政治偶像及焦虑中解放出来。拯救不仅仅是传统所谓从罪中救赎。除了罪以外,人还有无缘无故地遭受的苦难。上帝站在无辜受难者一边,并亲自受苦。这是新的神正论。人的解放不仅包括宗教偶像的破除,也包括政治偶像的破除。注重行动与成就,使人变得冷漠,对人缺乏同情,缺乏激情。现代神学的趋势是与社会现实结合更密切。