Self-determination in sport commitment

The study tested utility of self-determination and sport commitment theories to understanding young athletes' sport commitment. 343 young athletes (M= 13.5 yr., SD= +/- 1.1) from soccer, basketball, volleyball, handball, and water polo teams volunteered to participate. All completed the Sport Motivation Scale and the Sport Commitment Questionnaire. Pearson correlations showed a strong relationship between commitment and intrinsic motivation scores. In contrast, extrinsic motivation scores were not significantly correlated to commitment, whereas amotivation scores showed a negative correlation to commitment. Path analysis resulted in strong positive association of intrinsic motivation and commitment. Amotivation had small negative relation to commitment. According to the model tested, social constraints and involvement opportunities were not significant contributors to sport commitment. An alternative model supported the mediating role of enjoyment to psychological commitment. The results showed that high self-determination is supportive of sport commitment, whereas low self-determination reduces sport commitment.     

Examining the relationship between recreational sport participation and intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and amotivation

This study aimed at investigating the effect of motivational dimensions proposed by Pelletier, et al. in 1995, both on sport participation levels and on intention for continuing participation among adult recreational sport participants. Two hundred and fifty-seven adult individuals, who reported participation in some type of sport and physical activity, completed the Sport Motivation Scale and a scale measuring intention. The study provided evidence to suggest that increased motivation leads to increased participation. Amotivation significantly decreased from the least to the most frequent participant groups, while both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation followed the reverse pattern. The results also indicated that increased intrinsic motivation to gain knowledge and accomplishment and extrinsic motivation (introjected regulation) are positively correlated with individuals' intentions to continue participation, while amotivation is negatively related. These results provide limited support for the self-determination theory. Implications for sport participation promotion are discussed.     

The commitment of young soccer players

The main purpose of this study was to test the Sport Commitment Model in young soccer players. Participants' ( N = 437) age ranged from 14 to 16 years. Based on the sport commitment model proposed by Scanlan and colleagues, 6 scales and 28-items constitute the Sport Commitment Questionnaire (SCQ). Results of this study provide some support for the reliability and validity of the SCQ, using a sample of young soccer players. Reliability analysis provided acceptable internal consistency for four scales: Sport Commitment, Sport Enjoyment, Involvement Alternatives and Social Constraints. Sport Enjoyment (Beta= .56, p <.001) and Involvement Alternatives (Beta= -.40, p <.001) were the strongest sport commitment predictors. Further studies with a broader age range, different genders, and other sports or competitive levels are required to continue analyzing the sport commitment model.     

Progressing measurement in sport motivation with the SMS-6: A response to Pelletier,Vallerand, and Sarrazin

Measurement in sport psychology is a major issue and attempts to progress measurement should be valued and encouraged. Construct validation is an ongoing process [Marsh, H. W., & Jackson, S. A. (1999). Flow experience in sport: Construct validation of multidimensional hierarchical state and trait responses. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 343–371] and the publication of the SMS-6 [Mallett, C. J., Kawabata, M., Newcombe, P., Otero-Ferero, A., & Jackson, S. A. (2007). Sports Motivation Scale-6 (SMS-6): A revised six-factor Sport Motivation Scale. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 8, 600–614] was an attempt to progress measurement in contextual sport motivation using self-determination theory (SDT) [Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behaviour. New York: Plenum Press]. Mallett et al. argued for the need to re-develop the Sport Motivation Scale (SMS) [Pelletier, L. G., Fortier, M. S., Vallerand, R. J., Tuson, K. M., Brière, N. M., & Blais, M. R. (1995). Toward a new measure of intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and amotivation in sports: The Sport Motivation Scale (SMS). Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 17, 35–53], primarily because the SMS did not measure integrated regulation, and secondly due to consistently reported problems with the lack of convergent and discriminant validity. Pelletier, Vallerand, and Sarrazin's [Pelletier, L. G., Vallerand, R. J., & Sarrazin, P. (2007b). Something old, something new, and something borrowed. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 8, 615–621] commentary on the SMS-6, focused on two legitimate questions: “Does the SMS need to be revised?”, and “Is the revised 6-factor SMS a better scale?” In addressing the first question, this article provides strong evidence that supports the arguments that the SMS does need revision. In addressing the second question, we provided sound arguments for the development of the SMS-6. However, we concluded that the superiority of the SMS-6 in measuring contextual sport motivation across diverse age and cultural groups is a question for future and continuing research. Further examination of the SMS-6 is necessary before such claims can be endorsed.     

An integrative analysis of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in sport

Abstract

The purpose of this paper is to propose a motivational sequence that integrates much of the intrinsic and extrinsic motivation literature in sport. The proposed motivational sequence: “Social Factors → Psychological Mediators → Types of Motivation → Consequences” is in line with self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan. 1985. 1991) and the Hierarchical model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (Vallerand, 1997). Using the sequence, it is first shown that the motivational impact of social factors inherent in sport, such as competition/cooperation, success/failure, and coaches' behaviors toward athletes, takes place through their influence on athletes' perceptions of autonomy, competence, and relatedness (i.e., the psychological mediators). Second, recent results are provided with respect to a new multidimensional measure (i.e., the Sport Motivation Scale; Pelletier et al., 1995) to assess the different types of athletes' motives. Third, we review findings that suggest that such sport motives lead to various consequences for the athlete e.g.     

Intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and learning English as a foreign language

The objective of this study was to examine the relationships of amotivation, extrinsic motivation, and intrinsic motivation with learning the English language. The 230 Iranian students at Shiraz University were tested using the Language Learning Orientations Scales to measure Amotivation, Extrinsic Motivation, and Intrinsic Motivation as explanatory variables. Grade point average in English exams was selected as a measure of English learning Achievement. Multiple regression analysis revealed that learning Achievement scores were predicted by scores on the Amotivation subscale, Introjected Regulation subscale, Knowledge subscale, and Stimulation subscale, whereas, the External and Identified Regulation and Accomplishment subscales did not have a significant relationship with Achievement. The results are discussed in terms of differences in Iranian context and culture.     

The development of the Sport Commitment Questionnaire-2 (English version)

ObjectivesThe purpose of this research was to develop the Sport Commitment Questionnaire-2 (SCQ-2) and establish its psychometric properties. The SCQ-2 measures the updated Sport Commitment Model (SCM: Scanlan, Russell, Scanlan, Klunchoo, & Chow, 2013) and replaces the outdated Sport Commitment Questionnaire (SCQ) that assessed the original SCM (Scanlan, Simons, Carpenter, Schmidt, & Keeler, 1993).DesignBased on prior commitment research, items were generated to refine and expand the original SCQ subscales and to measure new candidate constructs to the SCM. A multiphase study was then conducted.MethodsPhase 1 participants were 753 male/female adolescent athletes (ages 13–19 years) from six sports representing varying levels of task interdependence. Using similar methodology as Phase 1, Phase 2 assessed 982 male/female adolescent athletes.ResultsExploratory factor analysis of Phase 1 data revealed 13 factors: two types of commitment (Enthusiastic and Constrained) and 11 sources. Confirmatory factor analysis of Phase 2 data supported a 58-item, 12-factor structure. In addition, all subscales were internally consistent. Structural equation modeling revealed that the sources explained 81.8% of the variance in Enthusiastic Commitment and 63.9% in Constrained Commitment.ConclusionsThe SCQ-2 assesses the sources and types of commitment in the updated SCM. Based on several indices of fit and the composite reliabilities, psychometric support for the SCQ-2 was established.     

Comparing sport motivation scales: A response to Pelletier et al.

ObjectivesPelletier, Rocchi, Vallerand, Deci, and Ryan (2013) proposed a new version of the Sport Motivation Scale (SMS; Pelletier, Fortier, Vallerand, Tuson, & Blais, 1995) as a measure of different types of behavioral regulations in sport, as outlined in self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000). They examined various aspects of reliability and validity of scale scores, and concluded that the new scale performs better than the original version. They also claimed that the SMS-II is superior to other measures of motivation in sport, including the Behavioral Regulation in Sport Questionnaire (BRSQ) developed by Lonsdale, Hodge, and Rose (2008). By comparing the evidence presented in papers by Pelletier et al. and Lonsdale et al., our objective was to examine the relative merits and shortcomings of the two measures and suggest directions for future research into sport motivation measurement.ConclusionsBoth the SMS-II and BRSQ have shown relative strengths and weaknesses. Overall, the construct validity evidence of scores derived from the two measures was similar. There is insufficient information to support the claim that one scale is superior to the other. Researchers are encouraged to make direct comparisons by administering both measures to the same group of participants in future studies.     

Sport motivation scale-6 (SMS-6): A revised six-factor sport motivation scale

Background and Purpose: The sport motivation scale (SMS; [Pelletier, L. G., Fortier, M. S., Vallerand, R. J., Tuson, K. M., Brière, N. M., & Blais, M. R. (1995). Toward a new measure of intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and amotivation in sports: The sport motivation scale (SMS). Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 17, 35–53]) was developed to measure an athlete's motivation toward sport participation. However, the SMS does not measure the most autonomous form of extrinsic motivation, integrated regulation, which is inconsistent with self-determination theory (SDT; [Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behaviour. New York: Plenum Press]) upon which the instrument is based. Moreover, several studies (e.g., [Martens, M. P., & Webber, S. N. (2002). Psychometric properties of the sport motivation scale: An evaluation with college varsity athletes from the U.S. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 24, 254–270]) have questioned the factorial validity of the SMS. Hence, the purpose of this study was to develop a revised version of the SMS, including integrated regulation.Method: In Stage 1, the factorial validity of the SMS was examined using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) on data collected from 614 Australians (elite athletes and university students). In Stage 2, the scale was revised by including integrated regulation items and replacing problematic items through an iterative process using CFA for data collected from 557 Australian university students. Concurrent validity of the revised scale was examined by evaluating correlations with the dispositional flow scale-2 (DFS-2) [Jackson, S. A., & Eklund, R. C. (2004). The flow scales manual. Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology].Results: The revision led to development of a six-factor 24-item scale (SMS-6) that indicated a more parsimonious and improved fitting model consistent with SDT. Correlations between the SMS-6 and DFS-2 factors support the concurrent validity of the revised scale.Conclusion: From statistical and theoretical viewpoints, the revised SMS-6 was preferable to the original SMS, except for the discriminant validity issue of identification regulation. Further examination of the instrument is necessary by cross-validating the findings from this study.     

Intrinsic motivation and individual deliberate practice are reciprocally related: Evidence from a longitudinal study of adolescent team sport athletes

ObjectiveThere is limited understanding of how sport motivation is associated with deliberate practice in youth team sport athletes. Therefore, the aim of this study was to examine prospective associations between intrinsic motivation and individual deliberate practice in specializing team sport athletes.DesignLongitudinal.MethodEstonian adolescent team sport athletes (N = 163; M_age – 13.6 years at the beginning of study) completed the Sport Motivation Scale and training diary across a 12-month period.ResultsBoth individual deliberate practice and intrinsic motivation increased over the 1-year period. Greater baseline intrinsic motivation predicted subsequent individual deliberate practice and greater initial individual deliberate practice predicted greater subsequent intrinsic motivation. The bidirectional relationship between athletes intrinsic motivation and individual deliberate practice were replicated across both time lags.ConclusionThe findings have significant implications for the importance placed on intrinsic motivation as a means of increasing of individual deliberate practice as well being an important outcome variable in specializing team sport athletes.     

Motivational climate and coaches' communication style predict young soccer players' commitment

The purpose of this research was to study the role of coaches' communication style and coach-created motivational climate in young soccer players' enjoyment and commitment. Four hundred and fifteen young soccer players of high competitive level in the age range from 14 to 16 completed the following questionnaires: a) coach-induced perceived motivational climate (PMCSQ-2), b) coaches' behaviour perception (CBAS-PBS), and c) sport commitment (SCQ). Results showed that coach-created motivational climate correlated highly with the perception of coaches' communication style. Moreover, coach-created motivational climate and communication style significantly determines players' sport commitment and enjoyment. Discussion focuses on the importance of seeking and training credible coaches that favours athletes' commitment.     

Examining the Growth Trajectories of Physical Education Students’ Motivation,Enjoyment, and Physical Activity: A Person-Oriented Approach

The study examined the growth trajectories in 757 (M age = 12.71) Finnish middle school students’ intrinsic and extrinsic motivation along with their enjoyment and physical activity. In addition, the study aimed to examine the role of intrinsic and extrinsic physical education motivation in the development in adolescents’ enjoyment and physical activity by identifying adolescents’ subgroups. Adolescents’ enjoyment and physical activity declined, intrinsic motivation was stable, and extrinsic motivation increased across middle school. Adolescents with highest levels of intrinsic motivation and moderate to high levels of extrinsic regulation had the highest levels of enjoyment and physical activity.     

Validation of the revised sport motivation scale (SMS-II)

ObjectivesAlthough the Sport Motivation Scale (SMS), published in 1995, has demonstrated validity and reliability in multiple studies, the scale has received some criticisms leading to revisions herein described. The objective of the present studies was to examine the construct validity and reliability of a revised scale sport motivation scale (SMS-II).DesignTwo studies were conducted using distinct samples of athletes. Study 1 examined adult athletes participating in a variety of sports and Study 2 examined youth basketball players and swimmers.MethodIn Study 1 the SMS-II was introduced and featured various item content changes, a reduced number of items per subscale, the addition of an integrated regulation subscale, and the introduction of a single intrinsic motivation subscale to replace the three intrinsic motivation subscales in the SMS. Relations of SMS-II subscales with each other and with expected outcomes supported the new scale's validity. In Study 2, the structure of the SMS-II and its relations with outcomes were further examined.ResultsResults of factor analyses, tests for internal consistency, and correlations among the different subscales and between the subscales and several outcomes of interest, supported the validity of the SMS-II.ConclusionsDiscussion focuses on the need for measurement improvement, and potential future directions for SMS-II research.     

内外动机对青少年记忆的影响及其神经机制

动机是一切行为的核心, 动机可分为外在和内在动机。青少年时期既是记忆的关键期, 也是动机发展的特殊时期。然而, 目前关于内外动机影响青少年记忆的研究才刚刚起步, 尚不清楚外在和内在动机影响青少年记忆的规律和机制是否一致, 也不清楚二者如何交互影响记忆。本研究将结合认知范式和脑成像技术, 考察外在和内在动机如何分别影响以及交互影响青少年记忆。这将有助于更加全面、深刻理解内外动机影响青少年记忆的独特规律和机制, 为科学提升青少年动机和记忆效果提供研究证据。     

Achievement goal orientations,beliefs about sport success and sport emotions as related to moderate to vigorous physical activity of adolescents

Abstract

This study examined the relationships between achievement goals, beliefs about sport success and sport emotions with moderate to vigorous physical activity of Estonian adolescents. Three hundred and seventy five adolescents, aged 13–14 years, completed the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire and 7-day physical activity recall. Measures of the adolescent's orientation to work avoidance, focus on cooperation, beliefs about the causes of success and degree of satisfaction/interest specific to the context of sport and games were also included. Moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) quartiles were determined and psychological measures for extreme activity groups were compared. A one-way ANOVA indicated that active males scored significantly higher in task orientation, motivation/effort, ability and enjoyment/interest whereas active females showed higher scores for cooperation and exercise enjoyment and lower deception and boredom compared with low activity groups. Correlation analysis revealed that in males, MVPA was related with task orientation, reported ability and motivation/ effort. For females, cooperation, and enjoyment of sport were positively and the amount of boredom was negatively associated with MVPA scores. Multiple regression analysis revealed that psychological measures explained only 14% (females) and 19% (males) of the variance in MVPA. It is concluded that for adolescent males and females, different psychological measures predicted MVPA behavior.     

Relationship Between Academic Motivation and Mathematics Achievement Among Indian Adolescents in Canada and India

This study examined the relationships between academic motivation—intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, amotivation—and mathematics achievement among 363 Indian adolescents in India and 355 Indian immigrant adolescents in Canada. Results of hierarchical multiple regression analyses showed that intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and amotivation were not statistically significantly related to mathematics achievement among Indian adolescents in India. In contrast, both intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation were statistically significantly related to mathematics achievement among Indian immigrant adolescents in Canada. While intrinsic motivation was a statistically significant positive predictor of mathematics achievement among Indian immigrant adolescents in Canada, extrinsic motivation was a statistically significant negative predictor of mathematics achievement among Indian immigrant adolescents in Canada. Amotivation was not statistically significantly related to mathematics achievement among Indian immigrant adolescents in Canada. Implications of the findings for pedagogy and practice are discussed.     

Validation of a German version of the Sport Motivation Scale (SMS28) and motivation analysis in competitive mountain runners

This study validated a German version of the Sport Motivation Scale (SMS28) and investigated the sex-specific and age-related differences in motivation of competitive mountain runners. Translation and cross-cultural adaptation of the SMS28 was based on translation and back-translation methodology. Acceptable validity of the German version of the SMS28 was indicated by the high correlations (.81 to .98) of scores on the seven subscales for the English and German versions completed by 15 subjects. Motivation analysis was performed with 127 competitive male and female mountain runners. The seven subscales of the German version showed good internal consistency (Cronbach's coefficient alphas .70 to .85). Findings on motivation of competitive mountain runners were a decline across age groups of Intrinsic motivation toward accomplishment for both sexes and an age-related decline of External regulation only for females. These motivational changes might well be associated with the observed diminishing numbers of older participants in mountain running competitions.     

A comparative study on undergraduate students' academic motivation and academic self-concept

The purpose of this study was to investigate Turkish and American undergraduate students' academic motivation and academic self-concept scores regarding the years that they spent in university. The analysis was based on 566 (284 Turkish, 282 American) undergraduate students where, Academic Motivation Scale and Academic Self-Concept Scale were used as measuring instruments. The results showed that there was a statistical significant effect of nationality and number of years spent in university on undergraduate students' intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and self-concept scores. Turkish students had higher intrinsic scores whereas American students had higher extrinsic scores and more positive academic-self concept compared to Turkish partners. Regarding grade level, senior students from both cultures had higher intrinsic motivation and academic self-concept scores compared to other grade levels. In terms of extrinsic motivation, there is steady decline in American students' scores as grade level increases. On the other hand, Turkish undergraduates' extrinsic scores decrease in the second year but increase in the third and fourth year of university education. Results were discussed by taking into consideration the social and cultural differences between two nations.     

Intrinsic and extrinsic motives for originally following a sport team and team identification.

Research indicates that both highly and lowly identified fans are more likely to be intrinsically than extrinsically motivated and that highly identified fans have a particularly strong inclination for intrinsic motivation. The current investigation was designed to extend this work by examining the relationship between level of identification and one's intrinsic and extrinsic motives for originally following a sport team. Preference for intrinsic motives for originally following a team should be highest among those high on team identification. 88 participants completed questionnaires containing the Sport Spectator Identification Scale and items assessing their intrinsic and extrinsic motives for originally identifying with a team. Analyses provided clear support for the hypotheses.