心理病理学视野中的完美主义自我展示

完美主义自我展示是完美主义者在人际过程中为向他人展示自己非现实的、固定化的完美形象而进行的印象整饰过程。本文在简要阐述完美主义特征与澄清完美主义自我展示概念基础上,重点梳理和剖析了完美主义自我展示对抑郁、焦虑、社交恐惧、饮食障碍及人格障碍等常见心理病理现象的影响,并分析了其影响机制,最后,就深化该领域的研究提出了总结和展望。     

Perfectionistic self-presentation, body image, and eating disorder symptoms

A specific model for eating disorder symptoms involving perfectionistic self-presentation and two different moderators (i.e., body image evaluation and body image investment) was tested. Participants completed measures of perfectionistic self-presentation, body image dysfunction, and eating disorder symptoms. Findings indicated that all three dimensions of perfectionistic self-presentation were associated with eating disorder symptoms. Results also showed that perfectionistic self-presentation predicted eating disorder symptoms in women who were dissatisfied with their bodies, but that it did not predict eating problems in women who liked their bodies and felt there was little or no discrepancy between their actual and ideal appearances. Body image investment did not moderate the relationship between perfectionistic self-presentation and eating disorder symptoms, suggesting that ego-involvement alone is insufficient to promote eating disturbance in the context of perfectionism. The importance of self-presentation components of perfectionism and specific body image difficulties in predicting eating disorder symptoms are discussed.     

Perfectionism,discrepancies, and depression: Testing the perfectionism social disconnection model in a short-term,four-wave longitudinal study

Perfectionistic concerns (i.e., negative reactions to failures, exaggerated concerns over others’ criticism and expectations, and nagging self-doubts) are linked to social disconnection and depressive symptoms. According to the perfectionism social disconnection model, perfectionistic concerns contribute to social disconnection (i.e., feeling rejected, excluded, and unwanted by others) which, subsequently, contributes to depressive symptoms. The social world is replete with chances for interpretations. In interpreting their social worlds, people high in perfectionistic concerns tend to perceive interpersonal discrepancies, a distressing form of social disconnection that involves perceptions of others as dissatisfied with them and as disapproving of them. These interpretations are also conceptualized as having depressing consequences for people high in perfectionistic concerns. This study tested whether perceived interpersonal discrepancies mediate the relation between perfectionistic concerns and depressive symptoms; 240 participants were recruited and this mediational model was tested with a four-wave, 4-week longitudinal design. Structural equation modeling with bootstrapped tests of mediation indicated the perfectionistic concerns-depressive symptoms relationship was mediated by interpersonal discrepancies (even after controlling for perfectionistic strivings). People high in perfectionistic concerns perceive others as dissatisfied with them and as disapproving of them. Feeling rejected, excluded, and unwanted by others, people high in perfectionistic concerns are vulnerable to depression.     

The interpersonal expression of perfection: perfectionistic self-presentation and psychological distress

A concept involving the interpersonal expression of perfection, perfectionistic self-presentation, is introduced. It is argued that perfectionistic self-presentation is a maladaptive self-presentational style composed of three facets: perfectionistic self-promotion (i.e., proclaiming and displaying one's perfection), nondisplay of imperfection (i.e., concealing and avoiding behavioral demonstrations of one's imperfection), and nondisclosure of imperfection (i.e., evading and avoiding verbal admissions of one's imperfection). Several studies involving diverse samples demonstrate that perfectionistic self-presentation is a valid and reliable construct and a consistent factor in personal and interpersonal psychological distress. It is argued that the need to promote one's perfection or the desire to conceal one's imperfection involves self-esteem regulation in the interpersonal context.     

Self-presentation styles and Problematic use of Internet communicative services: The role of the concerns over behavioral displays of imperfection

The current study had the dual purpose of identifying consequences associated with perfectionistic self-presentation (PSP) and evaluating these factors as mediator of the proposed link between PSP and Problematic use of Internet communicative services (GPIU). The present study hypothesized that a self-presentation style characterized by the need to avoid displaying imperfections is associated with GPIU because communicating online rather than in person affords greater control through the reduction of non-verbal cues and the greater temporal flexibility. A sample of 200 university student participants completed measures assessing PSP, GPIU, and perceived controllable aspects of behaviors associated with relying on computer mediated communications (i.e. managing nonverbal displays and buying more time before having to respond). Structural equation modeling confirmed that those who systematically try to avoid revealing their supposed “less than perfect” behaviors or performance place great emphasis on the reduction of nonverbal cues and the temporal flexibility offered by the computer mediated interactions, which, in turn predicts GPIU levels. The findings are discussed in terms of their implications for GPIU and for the perfectionism social disconnection model.     

Affect Intensity Contributes to Perfectionistic Self-presentation in Adolescents Beyond Perfectionism

Perfectionistic self-presentation in adolescents is associated with psychological maladjustment and distress. Yet, no study so far has investigated what personality characteristics contribute to perfectionistic self-presentation in adolescence. Using a cross-sectional correlational design with 119 adolescents aged 11–16 years, this study investigated how perfectionism (self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism) and affect intensity (positive affectivity, negative intensity, and negative reactivity) predicted individual differences in three modes of perfectionistic self-presentation: perfectionistic self-promotion, nondisplay of imperfection, and nondisclosure of imperfection. Results showed a unique prediction pattern for all three modes of perfectionistic self-presentation. Moreover, affect intensity contributed to perfectionistic self-presentation beyond perfectionism in two of the three modes. Perfectionistic self-promotion was predicted by high self-oriented perfectionism, high socially prescribed perfectionism, high positive affectivity, and low negative reactivity. In contrast, nondisplay of imperfection was predicted by high self-oriented perfectionism, high negative reactivity, and low positive affectivity. Nondisclosure of perfectionism was predicted by high socially prescribed perfectionism only. The findings suggest that affect intensity is a personality characteristic contributing to perfectionistic self-presentation in adolescence beyond perfectionism.     

Perfectionism, beliefs, and adjustment in dating relationships

Two studies examined the extent to which dimensions of perfectionism are associated with indices of relationship beliefs, behaviors, and dyadic adjustment. In Study 1, 69 students in dating relationships completed the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS) and a multidimensional measure of relationship beliefs. In addition, partici-pants completed self-report measures of positive and negative relationship behaviors, and global measures of liking and loving. In Study 2, 91 students in dating relation-ships completed a battery of measures including the MPS and scales assessing perfec-tionism cognitions and perfectionistic self presentation. They also completed mea-sures of dyadic adjustment and limerence (i.e., intense, obsessive low with fears of rejection). Collectively, the findings indicated that individuals with high levels of self-oriented perfectionism and other-oriented perfectionism have stronger relationship beliefs in the areas of communication, trust, and support, suggesting that these perfec-tionists have high relationship standards in these particular areas. Although social prescribed perfectionism had little association with specific relationship beliefs, so-cially prescribed perfectionism was associated with a tendency to display destructive relationship responses (i.e., exit, neglect, and insensitivity), lower dyadic adjustment, and various aspects of limerence, including obsessive preoccupations and emotional dependence on the dating partner. Perfectionistic self-presentation and perfectionism cognitions were also linked with aspects of limerence. The results suggest that inter-personal aspects of perfectionism are associated with self-defeating tendencies in dating relationships. This research was supported, in part, by grant #410-93-1256 from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada awarded to the authors. The authors wish to thank Lisa Davidson for her assistance with the data analyses in Study 1. Requests for reprints should be addressed to Gordon L. Flett, Department of Psychology, York University, 4700 Keele Street, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, M3J 1P3.     

Perfectionism, beliefs, and adjustment in dating relationships

Two studies examined the extent to which dimensions of perfectionism are associated with indices of relationship beliefs, behaviors, and dyadic adjustment. In Study 1, 69 students in dating relationships completed the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS) and a multidimensional measure of relationship beliefs. In addition, partici-pants completed self-report measures of positive and negative relationship behaviors, and global measures of liking and loving. In Study 2, 91 students in dating relation-ships completed a battery of measures including the MPS and scales assessing perfec-tionism cognitions and perfectionistic self presentation. They also completed mea-sures of dyadic adjustment and limerence (i.e., intense, obsessive low with fears of rejection). Collectively, the findings indicated that individuals with high levels of self-oriented perfectionism and other-oriented perfectionism have stronger relationship beliefs in the areas of communication, trust, and support, suggesting that these perfec-tionists have high relationship standards in these particular areas. Although social prescribed perfectionism had little association with specific relationship beliefs, so-cially prescribed perfectionism was associated with a tendency to display destructive relationship responses (i.e., exit, neglect, and insensitivity), lower dyadic adjustment, and various aspects of limerence, including obsessive preoccupations and emotional dependence on the dating partner. Perfectionistic self-presentation and perfectionism cognitions were also linked with aspects of limerence. The results suggest that inter-personal aspects of perfectionism are associated with self-defeating tendencies in dating relationships. This research was supported, in part, by grant #410-93-1256 from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada awarded to the authors. The authors wish to thank Lisa Davidson for her assistance with the data analyses in Study 1. Requests for reprints should be addressed to Gordon L. Flett, Department of Psychology, York University, 4700 Keele Street, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, M3J 1P3.     

Projecting perfection by hiding effort: supplementing the perfectionistic self-presentation scale with a brief self-presentation measure

Extensive research has illustrated the relevance of individual differences in perfectionistic self-presentation, but there has been little work on how perfectionistic self-presentation is expressed. The current research addressed this issue by examining the tendency to project a perfectionistic image by hiding effort. This research develops and evaluates a brief unifactorial measure as an extension of perfectionistic self-presentation. It is shown that the Perfectionistic Self-Presentation Hiding Effort Scale is reliable and valid in terms of its links with multidimensional perfectionism dimensions. Further, individual differences in seeming perfect while hiding effort accounted for unique variance in depression and social anxiety. Factors and processes that contribute to attempting to seem perfect while hiding effort are discussed.     

Preoccupied attachment,need to belong,shame, and interpersonal perfectionism: An investigation of the Perfectionism Social Disconnection Model

According to the Perfectionism Social Disconnection Model, interpersonal components of perfectionism (i.e., socially prescribed perfectionism, perfectionistic self-presentation) develop when individuals exhibit an inordinate need for belongingness and shame as a result of early attachment insecurity and/or a lack of emotional attunement in the caregiver–child relationship. This study hence examined the mediating effects of the need to belong and shame on the relationships between insecure attachment and interpersonal perfectionism. A sample of 513 undergraduates completed self-report measures including trait perfectionism, perfectionistic self-presentation, shame, the need for belongingness, and attachment styles. As hypothesized, socially prescribed perfectionism and perfectionistic self-presentation were both positively associated with the need to belong, shame, and insecure attachment styles. Furthermore, results from multiple mediation analyses indicated that the associations between preoccupied attachment and interpersonal components of perfectionism were mediated by a strong need for belongingness and shame. The present study hence provides further empirical support for the Perfectionism Social Disconnection Model and highlights the importance of examining the quality of attachment relationships for individuals with elevated interpersonal perfectionism.     

The link between neuroticism and perfectionistic concerns: The mediating effect of trait emotional intelligence

Individuals with high perfectionistic concerns have overly negative reactions to perceived failures, nagging self-doubts, and excessive concerns over others’ criticisms and expectations. While neuroticism is robustly associated with perfectionistic concerns, this study examined whether trait emotional intelligence (i.e., emotion related self-perceptions) mediates the relationship between neuroticism and perfectionistic concerns. A sample of 223 undergraduates completed measures of neuroticism, trait emotional intelligence, and perfectionistic concerns. As hypothesized, trait emotional intelligence partially mediated the neuroticism-perfectionistic concerns link. Individuals high on the neuroticism dimension but lower on trait emotional intelligence may be more prone to perfectionistic concerns.     

Are attachment styles differentially related to interpersonal perfectionism and binge eating symptoms?

In the current study we aimed to examine the association between attachment styles towards father and mother, perfectionistic self-promotion (PSP), socially prescribed perfectionism (SPP), and binge eating symptoms in a sample of 328 late adolescents (mean age 17.1 years). It was examined whether anxiously and avoidantly attached adolescents would differentially cope with their insecure feelings. It was hypothesized that anxiously attached adolescents would, through hyperactivating strategies, be hypersensitive to the expectations of others. Avoidantly attached adolescents were hypothesized to present a perfect image of the self, because of their deactivating emotion regulation. Furthermore, the mediating role of perfectionism in the relation between attachment representations and binge eating symptoms was examined. Results showed that anxious attachment was significantly positively associated with PSP, SPP, and binge eating. Avoidant attachment towards mother was only positively associated with SPP, whereas avoidant attachment towards father was positively associated with PSP and binge eating. PSP fully mediated the relation between avoidant attachment towards father and binge eating. Interestingly, the current findings showed the importance of examining attachment representations towards both parents.     

On the formation of favourable impressions: Associations between self-presentation motives,task behaviour,and others’ evaluations of the self in a team-sport setting

Individuals adopt self-presentation motives in sport settings to shape others’ perceptions of the self. However, the effectiveness of different types of motives in shaping favourable evaluations has not been explored. We examined pathways from 2 × 2 self-presentation motives to others’ evaluative perceptions via task behaviour. Participants (N = 112) reported their self-presentation motives immediately prior to a basketball game, had their behaviours (i.e., shots, time spent on the sideline) recorded via video during the game, then completed agentic (e.g., competent) and communal (e.g., supportive) ratings of their teammates following the game. Structural equation modeling revealed positive pathways from acquisitive motives to behaviour (i.e., acquisitive agency) and favourable evaluations (i.e., acquisitive-agency and -communion). Negative pathways were observed from protective communion to behaviour and others’ evaluations. The findings indicate that different types of self-presentation motives may differ in their impression management effectiveness and may either promote or suppress task behaviour.     

Perfectionistic self-presentation in children and adolescents: development and validation of the Perfectionistic Self-Presentation Scale--Junior Form

Research on adults indicates that perfectionistic self-presentation, the interpersonal expression of one's perfection, is associated with a variety of psychopathological outcomes independent of trait perfectionism and Big Five traits. The current article reports on the development and evidence for the validity of the subtest score interpretations of an 18-item self-report measure of perfectionistic self-presentation for children and adolescents. Analyses conducted on data from two clinical samples and one nonclinical sample of children and adolescents found that the Perfectionistic Self-Presentation Scale--Junior Form (PSPS-Jr) reflected a multidimensional model of perfectionistic self-presentation with three subscales: Perfectionistic Self Promotion, Nondisplay of Imperfection, and Nondisclosure of Imperfection. The subscale scores were found to demonstrate internal consistency, and there was good evidence supporting the validity of the interpretation of subscale scores based on this new measure. The subscales were associated with maladaptive outcomes, but were not influenced unduly by biases that included social desirability and differential item functioning by gender. Overall, the PSPS-Jr appears to be a useful measure of the expression of perfection among youths and an important tool in attempting to understand the nature and the consequences of perfectionistic self-presentation in children and adolescents.     

Perfectionistic self-presentation, socially prescribed perfectionism, and suicide in youth: a test of the perfectionism social disconnection model

The role of interpersonal components of perfectionism in suicide outcomes among youth was assessed and the Perfectionism Social Disconnection Model (PSDM) was tested by determining whether the links between socially prescribed perfectionism (SPP) and perfectionistic self-presentation (PSP) and suicide outcomes are mediated by experiences of social disconnection, as indicated by social hopelessness and being bullied. PSP, trait perfectionism, suicide outcomes, and experiences of being bullied and social hopelessness were measured in 152 psychiatric outpatient children and adolescents. Correlational tests confirmed that PSP and SPP were associated with suicide outcomes and these interpersonal perfectionism components were associated significantly with bullying and social hopelessness. Support was also obtained for the PSDM. The relationship between the PSP facets, particularly nondisplay of imperfections, and suicide outcomes were mediated by being bullied. Additionally, the relationship between all interpersonal components of perfectionism and suicide risk was mediated by social hopelessness. Theoretical and clinical implications of interpersonal components of perfectionism and social disconnection in suicide outcomes for youth are discussed.     

Do shame and perfectionistic self-presentation explain the link between early affiliative memories and eating psychopathology?

This study tested a model examining the impact that early affiliative memories (both with family and peers) on eating psychopathology, and whether these links are carried by the mechanisms of external shame and body image-related perfectionistic self-presentation, in a sample of 480 female college students. Path analyses’ results revealed that this model accounted for 48% of disordered eating’s variance and suggests that the lack of early positive emotional memories is associated with higher levels of shame (feelings of inferiority and unattractiveness), and with higher tendency to adopt body image-related perfectionistic strategies, that seem to explain excessive eating concern and rigid control of one’s eating behaviors. This study offers important insights for future research and for the development of intervention programs, by revealing the importance of assessing and targeting shame and perfectionistic strategies and suggesting the importance of promoting adaptive emotion regulation strategies.     

Self-Presentation Concerns May Contribute Toward the Understanding of Athletes' Affect When Trialing for a New Sports Team

A vignette-based experimental manipulation was used to examine the impact of self-presentation concerns on athletes' affect and cognitive appraisal. Others' reactions were described, so as to emphasize or deemphasize self-presentation concerns. Athletes given cause to believe that they were generating unfavorable impressions experienced more negative affect and reported more threat-based appraisal. Athletes exposed to information deemphasizing self-presentation concerns experienced more positive affect and reported more of a challenge-based appraisal. The findings indicate a potential opportunity (e.g., deemphasizing self-presentation concerns, providing a supportive interpersonal environment) that others (e.g., coaches and teammates) could act on to improve athlete experiences during sports trials.     

Self-presentation and consumer interaction styles

It is hypothesized that self-presentation and consumer interaction styles are interrelated. Specifically those people who adopt an acquisitive self-presentation style are expected to be more assertive than others with respect to requesting information, seeking redress, and resisting sales requests. People adopting a protective self-presentation style are expected to be less assertive with respect to these same consumer interactions. The results of the study support the expectations and imply the importance of considering self-presentation styles in understanding interpersonal influence and interpersonal communications in the marketplace.The authors thank three anonymous reviewers for their particularly helpful comments.     

Inferences about interdependence shape cooperation

During social interactions in daily life, people possess imperfect knowledge of their interdependence (i.e., how behaviors affect each person’s outcomes), and what people infer about their interdependence can shape their behaviors. We review theory and research that suggests people can infer their interdependence with others along several dimensions, including mutual dependence, power, and corresponding-versus-conflicting interests. We discuss how perceptions of interdependence affect how people cooperate and punish others’ defection in everyday life. We propose that people understand their interdependence with others through knowledge of the action space, cues during social interactions (e.g., partner behaviors), and priors based on experience. Finally, we describe how learning interdependence could occur through domain-specific and domain-general mechanisms.     

The Need to Present a Perfect Body Image: Development of a New Measure of Perfectionistic Self-Presentation

Perfectionistic self-presentation is linked to different clinical conditions and specially to eating disorders. In fact, the role that the drive to reach “perfection” and display it to others plays on eating and body image-related symptoms has long been the target of theoretical and empirical interest. However, an instrument that specifically assessed the need to present a perfect body image to others did not exist. The current study presents the development and validation of the Perfectionistic Self-Presentation Scale – Body Image (PSPS-BI), a measure designed to assess the need to present a perfect body image to others by displaying a flawless physical appearance and by occulting perceived imperfections in a public context. Three studies that included a total of 364 males and 541 females with ages between 18 to 38 years, were used to examine the structure and psychometric properties of the scale. Results showed that PSPS-BI presents two factors that measure the concealment of body imperfections and the display of body perfection. PSPS-BI revealed good internal reliability and temporal stability. Also, the PSPS-BI revealed good concurrent validity, tested with measures of perfectionism, body image flexibility, and general and eating psychopathology. Furthermore, a mediational analysis indicated that the need to present a perfect body image to others fully mediates the relationship between a general measure of perfectionistic self-presentation and drive for thinness, in both men and women. PSPS-BI showed good preliminary evidence as a reliable and accurate measure that seems to offer new possibilities to the research field of body image and eating-related difficulties.