Gender processes in school functioning and the mediating role of cognitive self-regulation

The catalysts for gender discrepancies across developmental outcomes are widely debated. This study examines cognitive self-regulation (CSR) as a mechanism for understanding gender differences in scholastic performance—both subjective school functioning and objective standardized achievement. Utilizing a national sample from the NICHD SECCYD (n = 1364), not only does CSR (i.e., attention and executive function) in 3rd grade mediate the relation between early mother–child interactions (at 54 months) and scholastic outcomes (in 5th grade), but it also predicts gender discrepancies favoring girls in grades, work persistence and socio-emotional development. Additional exploratory evidence suggests quality mother–child interactions may be more meaningful for girls' CSR; however, for boys, CSR is more predictive of school functioning. Both school functioning and standardized achievement were utilized in this study and highlight that gender differences in development and learning are nuanced and not readily discernible across all measures of scholastic performance. Implications for future research, intervention, and practice are discussed.     

The impact of parents’ mental health on parent–baby interaction: A prospective study

The aims of the current study were to examine the effect of fathers’ and mothers’ pre and postnatal mental health on mother–infant and father–infant interactions. Mental health was broadly defined to include anxiety, depression and PTSD. A community sample of 44 mothers and 40 fathers from 45 families completed questionnaire measures of mental health in late pregnancy and three months postpartum. Mother–infant and father–infant interactions were observed and videoed three months postpartum and analysed using the CARE-index. Results showed that prenatal mental health, in particular anxiety, was associated with parent–infant interactions to a greater extent than postnatal mental health. Fathers’ prenatal symptoms were associated with higher paternal unresponsiveness and infant passivity whilst fathers’ postnatal symptoms were associated with higher levels of infant difficulty in the father–baby interaction. The results also indicated that mothers and fathers interaction with their babies were similar, both on average and within the couples, with 34% being inept or at risk. These findings highlight the need for early detection and prevention of both mental health and parent–infant relationship problems in fathers as well as mothers. However, further prospective and longitudinal studies are needed to understand the influences of parental mental health on the parent–infant interactions further. Also it should be noted that the mental health scores were low in this sample, which may reflect the sample characteristics. Future studies therefore would benefit from focusing on more vulnerable groups of parents.     

Contextual Differences in Parent–Child Play: Implications for Children's Gender Role Development

Parent–child play behavior of 33 preschool children (18 boys, 29 European-American, middle- and upper-middle-class families) was videotaped in separate pretend and physical play sessions. Children's play behavior with a same-sex peer also was observed. Analyses focus on contextual differences in parent–child play behavior, as well as associations between parent–child play and child–peer play. During the pretense play session parent–daughter dyads, particularly mother–daughter dyads, engaged in more pretense play than did parent–son dyads. During the physical play session father–son dyads engaged in more physical play than did father–daughter dyads. These data suggest that context may play an important role in gender differentiated patterns of parent–child play behavior. As for children's peer play behavior, consistent with previous evidence, girls were more likely than boys to engage peers in pretend play and boys were more likely than girls to play physically with peers. Children whose parents engaged in more pretense play engaged in more pretense play with a peer, whereas children's whose parents engaged in more physical play engaged in more physical play with a peer. These findings suggest that parents may contribute to children's gender-typed play behaviors with peers.     

Infant interest in their mother's face is associated with maternal psychological health

Early experience can alter infants’ interest in faces in their environment. This study investigated the relationship between maternal psychological health, mother–infant bonding, and infant face interest in a community sample. A visual habituation paradigm was used to independently assess 3.5-month old infants’ attention to a photograph of their mother's face and a stranger's face. In this sample of 54 healthy mother–infant pairs, 57% of mothers (N = 31) reported symptoms of at least one of stress response to trauma, anxiety, or depression. Interest in the mother-face, but not stranger-face, was positively associated with the mother's psychological health. In regression analyses, anxiety and depression predicted 9% of the variance in looking to the mother-face. Anxiety was the only significant predictor within the model. No direct associations were found between mother–infant bonding and infants’ face interest. Taken together, these findings indicate that infant's visual engagement with their mother's face varies with maternal symptoms of emotional distress, even within a community sample.     

Parent–child career construction: A narrative study from a gender perspective

Nine families composed of mother and father, one son and one daughter were involved in this study to examine the role played by parents on children's career development from a gender perspective. In particular, this paper addresses the questions of how the parent–child dyad constructs stories about the child's career and the role played in it by the parent, and how same-sex dyads versus opposite-sex shape these stories. The narrative method was used as it lends itself to capturing family members storytelling about children's career. A narrative interview was administered to thirty-six participants with the data being analyzed using the adaptation of a tried-and-tested narrative analysis procedure. The findings show the importance of same-sex dyads in constructing career stories, plotted around themes of father–son educational and occupational transmission and mother–daughter alliance in facilitating girls' self-making. The study shows how storytelling helps family members to accommodate disruptions experienced during career transitions and to motivate choices that make vocational identity more stable. Implications for practice and future research are discussed.     

In-Home Training for Fathers of Children with Autism: A Follow up Study and Evaluation of Four Individual Training Components

Literature regarding fathers of children with autism remains sparse, and because mothers are the more common intervening parent, few training methods have focused on fathers. Thus, we sought to evaluate effects of in-home training directed at fathers and their ability to train mothers in the same manner in which they were trained. Fathers were taught four skills commonly associated with in-home training interventions for parents of children with autism: following the child’s lead, imitation with animation, commenting on the child, and expectant waiting. Father skills were evaluated twice a week for 12 weeks during videotaped in-home father–child play sessions. Analyses included visual inspection of graphed data and statistical analyses of father skill acquisition, mother skill acquisition, and child behaviors with both parents. A multivariate repeated measures analysis of 18 dyads revealed significant increases in frequencies of fathers’ imitation with animation, expectant waiting, and commenting on the child. Child initiating rates increased significantly as did frequencies of child non-speech vocalizations. Analysis of mothers revealed significant increases in frequencies of imitation with animation, expectant waiting, and following the child’s lead. Child behaviors had similar results for father and mother sessions. Findings are consistent with those from our first study indicating that fathers can effectively implement skills that promote father–child social interactions and that children respond positively to this approach.     

Screen media and language development in infants and toddlers: An ecological perspective

The abilities to understand and use language represent two of the most important developmental competencies that children must master during the first 3 years of life. Over the past decade, screen media content directed at infants and toddlers has dramatically increased. As a result, infants’ and toddlers’ time spent with media has also notably increased (i.e., 1–2 h per day). At present, there is limited empirical knowledge regarding how screen media influence infants’ and toddlers’ language development. In this review, we contend that infants and toddlers are capable of learning from screen media. This learning is dependent upon the confluence of three distinct but interrelated factors: attributes of the child; characteristics of the screen media stimuli; and the varied environmental contexts surrounding the child’s screen media use. To examine these interrelated factors, we have adopted an ecological framework in which a young child’s language skills develop from the reciprocal transactions between the child and the broader environmental contexts in which a child is situated or operates. Screen media effects are dependent on the degree to which media content resembles infants’ and toddlers’ real-life experiences including the use of simple stories and familiar objects or routines. Repeated exposure also helps infants and toddlers learn both the format and the content of screen media and can even ameliorate negative effects associated with viewing particular content. Finally, the presence of a competent co-viewer appears to boost babies’ language learning from screen media, much like the ways these processes facilitate learning in live scenarios.     

Parent–Child Relationships and ADHD Symptoms: A Longitudinal Analysis

Evidence both from psychological research and clinical intervention studies suggests that there are bidirectional influences between overt child behavior problems and parent–child relations. Very little research however, has considered the pattern of relations that exists between Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and the parent–child relationship within a longitudinal context. Using a longitudinal community sample from the United Kingdom which included 194 school aged children (46% male and 54% female) and both parents, this study examined the relationship between child ADHD symptoms and displays of rejection in the parent–child relationship. These relationships were investigated separately for mothers and fathers using cross-lagged panel correlation and reciprocal effects analysis. Mothers and fathers reported on ADHD symptoms and children reported on their feelings of rejection in the mother–child and father–child relationships. Results suggested differences in the direction of effects linking mother– and father–child rejection and child ADHD symptoms; with ADHD symptoms affecting the mother–child relationship and the converse pattern of effects noted for fathers. Implications for future research focusing on the link between ADHD symptoms and parent–child relationships are discussed.     

Partners’ Attributions for Service Members’ Symptoms of Combat-Related Posttraumatic Stress Disorder

The association of service members’ combat-related PTSD with partners’ distress is weaker when spouses/partners believe that service members experienced more traumatic events during deployment. Also, when simultaneously examining partners’ perceptions of all PTSD symptoms, perceptions of reexperiencing symptoms (the symptoms most obviously connected to traumatic events) are significantly negatively related to distress in partners. These findings are consistent with the notion that partners may be less distressed if they make external, rather than internal, attributions for service members’ symptoms. The present study explicitly tests this possibility. Civilian wives of active duty service members completed measures regarding their own marital satisfaction, their perceptions of service members’ combat exposure during deployments, their perceptions of service members’ symptoms of PTSD, and their attributions for those symptoms. External attributions were significantly positively associated with perceptions of combat exposure (r_p = .31) and reexperiencing symptoms (β = .33) and significantly negatively associated with perceptions of numbing/withdrawal symptoms (r_p = –.22). In contrast, internal attributions were significantly negatively associated with perceptions of reexperiencing symptoms (β = –.18) and significantly positively associated with perceptions of numbing/withdrawal symptoms (β = .46). Internal attributions significantly moderated the negative association of PTSD symptoms with marital satisfaction, such that the association strengthened as internal attributions increased. These findings are the first explicit support for an attributional understanding of distress in partners of combat veterans. Interventions that alter partners’ attributions may improve marital functioning.     

Early parent-child relations and family functioning of preschool boys with pervasive hyperactivity

This study examined the quality of parent–child relationships and family functioning of preschool children with early onset hyperactivity by comparing a community sample of 33 pervasively hyperactive preschool boys with a comparison sample of 34 boys. Mothers and children were assessed at home on a range of interview, parent questionnaire, and observational measures of parenting and family functioning. Results of the study showed that higher rates of reported lax disciplinary practices, less efficient parental coping, lower rates of father–child communication, and less synchronous mother–child interactions were significantly associated with hyperactivity following statistical adjustment for the effects of conduct problems and other confounding factors. The best parenting predictor of hyperactivity was maternal coping. The present findings suggest that the way in which parents interact with their preschool children may make a unique contribution to the development and ongoing behavioral difficulties experienced by children with pervasive hyperactivity. Findings also highlight the importance of considering the role of fathers in the behavioral development of boys with early tendencies to hyperactive and distractible behavior problems.     

Synchrony,complexity and directiveness in mothers’ interactions with infants pre- and post-cochlear implantation

This study investigated effects of profound hearing loss on mother–infant interactions before and after cochlear implantation with a focus on maternal synchrony, complexity, and directiveness. Participants included two groups of mother–infant dyads: 9 dyads of mothers and infants with normal hearing; and 9 dyads of hearing mothers and infants with profound hearing loss. Dyads were observed at two time points: Time 1, scheduled to occur before cochlear implantation for infants with profound hearing loss (mean age = 13.6 months); and Time 2 (mean age = 23.3 months), scheduled to occur approximately six months after cochlear implantation. Hearing infants were age-matched to infants with hearing loss at both time points. Dependent variables included the proportion of maternal utterances that overlapped infant vocalizations, maternal mean length of utterance, infant word use, and combined maternal directives and prohibitions. Results showed mothers’ utterances overlapped the vocalizations of infants with hearing loss more often before cochlear implantation than after, mothers used less complex utterances with infants with cochlear implants compared to hearing peers (Time 2), and mothers of infants with profound hearing loss used frequent directives and prohibitions both before and after cochlear implantation. Together, mothers and infants adapted relatively quickly to infants’ access to cochlear implants, showing improved interactional synchrony, increased infant word use, and levels of maternal language complexity compatible with infants’ word use, all within seven months of cochlear implant activation.     

Child-Directed Interaction: Prediction of Change in Impaired Mother–Child Functioning

The first phase of parent–child interaction therapy (PCIT), called child-directed interaction, teaches parents to use positive and differential social attention to improve the parent–child relationship. This study examined predictors of change in mother and child functioning during the child-directed interaction for 100 mother–child dyads. The children were 3–6-years-old and diagnosed with oppositional defiant disorder. After establishing that significant improvements occurred in mother report of child disruptive behavior, parenting stress, and parenting practices, these three variables were combined to form a latent impaired mother–child functioning construct. Structural equation models were examined using maternal demographic and psychosocial variables as predictors of impaired mother–child functioning before and after the child-directed interaction. Mothers’ self-reported daily hassles and depressive symptomatology predicted 74% of variance in impaired mother–child functioning before treatment. Mothers’ report of social support predicted impaired mother–child functioning after the child-directed interaction, with 57% of the variance accounted for in this longitudinal model. These findings suggest the importance of improving maternal social support during the initial phase of PCIT.

Establishing construct validity for Openness-to-Experience in middle childhood: Contributions from personality and temperament

Controversy exists over the validity of child Openness-to-Experience (OE). To establish construct validity for child OE, data were collected for 346 children (51% girls) aged 9-to-10-years (M = 9.92, SD = 0.83). Parents completed questionnaires about their children’s personality, temperament, and behavioral problems and competencies. Factor analyses of relevant personality and temperament facets revealed a robust OE factor made up of three facets: Intellect, Imagination, and Sensitivity. Evidence for convergent and discriminant validity was established via associations with other personality traits, and behavioral problems and competencies. Results underscore the importance of drawing from both temperament and personality literatures in attempts to establish construct validity for child trait domains as well as examining facet-level associations between OE and child behavior.     

Impact of a Genetic Diagnosis of a Mitochondrial Disorder 5–17 Years After the Death of an Affected Child

This study used in-depth interviews to explore the experiences of parents who were re-contacted with new genetic results many years after the death of a child with a mitochondrial disorder. At the time of their child’s illness, parents had consented to a tissue sample being taken to help with diagnosis of a suspected mitochondrial disorder, and subsequently further DNA testing identified the genetic cause. Parents did not express negative feelings about being re-contacted with new information, and hoped that continuing research might help other families. Positive aspects included relief from feelings of guilt over the cause of the child’s disorder, and having accurate genetic information available for surviving children. Difficult emotional and psychosocial implications included contradictions to previous beliefs about inheritance, deciding how and when to communicate information to surviving children, and coping with new fears for the mother’s health if a gene located in the mitochondrial DNA was identified. In half of the families the new results significantly altered the parents’ understanding of the inheritance pattern. This study highlights the impact of new genetic information offered after a delay of several years, which has the potential to re-open feelings of grief and uncertainty and can present a new inheritance scenario for which research participants or their families are unprepared. Health professionals involved in conveying genetic research results can help to support families through this process.     

Career barriers and reading ability as correlates of career aspirations and expectations of parents and their children

Data were obtained from 176 Year 7 children (mean age = 12.2 years) on career status aspirations and expectations, career barriers, academic engagement, academic control beliefs, general ability and literacy; and from parents, mainly mothers, on aspirations, expectations and career barriers. Discrepancy scores between aspirations and expectations were calculated for both children and parents. Children differed from parents on career status aspirations and expectations; boys did not differ from girls, and parents did not differentiate between boys and girls. Parents’ and children’s aspirations were both associated with reading ability, although the association was weak for the children. Children’s expectations were associated with perceptions of career barriers, and a trend towards reading abilities, while parents’ expectations were associated with general ability and reading.     

Discrepancy in the Parents’ Mindset as a Source of Discrepancy in their Adolescents’ Mindset

An attempt was made to trace the source of discrepancy in adolescents’ mindset to the discrepancy in the mindset of their parents. Ninety three respondents, 31 adolescents (girls 17, boys 14) and both their parents living together in an urban area were interviewed with the help of the separately developed questionnaires that were designed to assess the extent of discrepancy in their mindset. Some background information about the family was also collected. Discrepancy in the parents’ mindset was the average of converged discrepancies rated by each parent, his or her spouse, and their adolescent son or daughter on the items that were separately developed for the father and the mother. Coefficients of correlation among and between the ratings of discrepancy in the father’s and the mother’s mindset indicated the convergent and discriminant validity of the measures. Mothers manifested greater discrepancy in their thoughts and behaviour than fathers. Regression analysis showed that the magnitude of discrepancy only in father’s mindset and convergence of discrepancy in mostly mother’s mindset contributed significantly to the discrepancy in adolescents’ thoughts and behaviour. Daughters’ discrepancy was a function of their father’s magnitude and mother’s convergence of discrepancy scores.     

Relations between Parenting Stress,Parenting Style,and Child Executive Functioning for Children with ADHD or Autism

Relations among parenting stress, parenting style, and child executive functioning for children with disabilities are not easily teased apart. The current study explored these relations among 82 children and adolescents age 7–18: 21 with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, 33 with autism spectrum disorder, and 28 typically developing. Results indicated that children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder or autism spectrum disorder had more executive functioning deficits, and their parents reported more parenting stress and a greater use of permissive parenting, compared to typically developing children. In general, increased parenting stress was associated with greater use of authoritarian and permissive parenting styles, as well as more problems with behavior regulation for children. Authoritarian and permissive parenting styles were associated with poorer child executive functioning. Child diagnostic group (attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, autism spectrum disorder, typically developing) moderated relations between parent stress and child functioning, and between parenting style and child functioning. Implications for intervention with families of children with disabilities are discussed.     

Are discrepancies among child,mother, and father reports on children's behavior related to parents' psychological symptoms and aspects of parent-child relationships?

Examined whether parents' symptoms and qualitative and quantitative aspects of parent–child relationships make unique contributions to mothers' and fathers' reports of, and mother–child, father–child, and father–mother discrepancies on, children's behavior. Participants were 100 children, aged 10–12, and their mothers and fathers. Parents' symptoms and parent–child relationships made unique contributions to both parents' ratings of externalizing behavior. Although parent–child relationship variables were related to both parents' ratings of internalizing behavior, only parents' symptoms made unique contributions. On mother–child and father–child discrepancies, differences emerged between mother and father, and internalizing and externalizing behaviors. Both fathers' and mothers' symptoms contributed to father–mother discrepancies on both behavior types, with parent–child relationships contributing unique variance to discrepancies on internalizing behavior. Results highlight the importance of each informant's symptoms and relationship variables in understanding informant discrepancies.     

Emotional availability (EA): Theoretical background,empirical research using the EA Scales,and clinical applications

Emotional availability (EA), as a construct, refers to the capacity of a dyad to share an emotionally healthy relationship. The Emotional Availability (EA) Scales assess this construct using a multi-dimensional framework, with scales measuring the affect and behavior of both the child and adult partner (caregiver). The four caregiver components are sensitivity, structuring, non-intrusiveness, and non-hostility. The two child components are the child’s responsiveness to the caregiver and the child’s involvement of the caregiver. We first describe this relationship construct, look at psychometric properties in basic and prevention/intervention efforts, then review the extant empirical literature in order to examine the scope of studies assessing EA by using the EA Scales. We also explore its use in clinical practice. Throughout, we critically evaluate the knowledge base in this area as well as identify areas for further growth.     

Mother–infant interaction improves with a developmental intervention for mother–preterm infant dyads

While premature infants have a high need for positive interactions, both infants and their mothers are challenged by the infant‘s biological immaturity. This randomized clinical trial of 198 premature infants born at 29–34 weeks gestation and their mothers examined the impact of the H-HOPE (Hospital to Home: Optimizing the Infant's Environment) intervention on mother–premature infant interaction patterns at 6-weeks corrected age (CA). Mothers had at least 2 social environmental risk factors such as minority status or less than high school education. Mother–infant dyads were randomly assigned to the H-HOPE intervention group or an attention control group. H-HOPE is an integrated intervention that included (1) twice-daily infant stimulation using the ATVV (auditory, tactile, visual, and vestibular-rocking stimulation) and (2) four maternal participatory guidance sessions plus two telephone calls by a nurse-community advocate team. Mother–infant interaction was assessed at 6-weeks CA using the Nursing Child Assessment Satellite Training–Feeding Scale (NCAST, 76 items) and the Dyadic Mutuality Code (DMC, 6-item contingency scale during a 5-min play session). NCAST and DMC scores for the Control and H-HOPE groups were compared using t-tests, chi-square tests and multivariable analysis. Compared with the Control group (n = 76), the H-HOPE group (n = 66) had higher overall NCAST scores and higher maternal Social-Emotional Growth Fostering Subscale scores. The H-HOPE group also had significantly higher scores for the overall infant subscale and the Infant Clarity of Cues Subscale (p < 0.05). H-HOPE dyads were also more likely to have high responsiveness during play as measured by the DMC (67.6% versus 58.1% of controls). After adjustment for significant maternal and infant characteristics, H-HOPE dyads had marginally higher scores during feeding on overall mother–infant interaction (β = 2.03, p = 0.06) and significantly higher scores on the infant subscale (β = 0.75, p = 0.05) when compared to controls. In the adjusted analysis, H-HOPE dyads had increased odds of high versus low mutual responsiveness during play (OR = 2.37, 95% CI = 0.97, 5.80). Intervening with both mother and infant is a promising approach to help premature infants achieve the social interaction patterns essential for optimal development.