Spontaneous Response Generalization During Whole Word Instruction: Reading to Spell and Spelling to Read

The bulk of the existing literature emphasizes the use of phonemic/phonetic based instruction to enhance generalization between reading and written language. However, phonetically irregular words are common in English and may require the use of whole word approaches. This study examined generalization between from reading to spelling and from spelling to reading following whole word based instruction using a delayed prompt procedure. The total instructional time was equated across conditions. Students exhibited substantial but incomplete generalization with the degree of generalization varying somewhat across responses and students. The most striking finding was that oral spelling instruction in which the printed word was neither presented nor produced resulted in substantial generalization to reading. These data illustrate a model for examining response generalization in instructional contexts.     

Differential Effects of Two Spelling Procedures on Acquisition,Maintenance and Adaption to Reading

An alternating treatments design was used to assess the effects of a constant time delay (CTD) procedure and a cover-copy-compare (CCC) procedure on three students’ acquisition, subsequent maintenance, and adaptation (i.e., application) of acquired spelling words to reading passages. Students were randomly presented two trials of word lists from their respective curriculum under each condition once daily. Results suggest that both procedures were effective for helping students efficiently acquire spelling words, but the CCC condition resulted in more words learned for all participants, although less pronounced when instructional time was considered. However, the CTD procedure resulted in substantially higher levels of maintenance for Jeremy and Leon, with no significant difference between the two procedures for the Anthony. Adaptation of acquired spelling words to reading was about equal under both conditions for Anthony and Leon, while Jeremy showed higher levels of performance in the CTD procedure. Discussion focuses on discrepant results, matching instructional procedures to specific learning concerns, and directions for future research.     

A Comparison of Constant Time Delay and Simultaneous Prompting Within Embedded Instruction in General Education Classes with Students with Moderate to Severe Disabilities

An adapted alternating treatment design was used to measure the effectiveness of constant time delay and simultaneous prompting procedures within an embedded instruction format on the acquisition of academic skills. Four middle school students with moderate to severe disabilities and the paraprofessionals who supported these students in their general education classes participated in the study. The results of the study indicated that both procedures were effective in promoting the acquisition of the target skills. However, the constant time delay procedure was more effective for two of the students and the simultaneous prompting procedure was more effective for the remaining students. Results are discussed in terms of future research and implications for supporting the inclusion of students with moderate and severe disabilities in general education classes.     

The Effects of Using Response Cards on Student Participation, Academic Achievement, and On-Task Behavior During Whole-Class, Math Instruction

This study evaluated the effects of using response cards during whole-group math instruction in a fourth-grade classroom, using an ABA research design. During both A and B conditions the classroom teacher conducted her math lessons as planned. However during the A conditions, hand-raising (HR) was in effect. That is, when the teacher asked a question she instructed the students to raise their hands and after each question she called on one student whose hand was raised. During the B condition, response cards (RC) were in effect. Whenever she asked a question, the teacher instructed the entire class to write their answers on individual response cards. After each question, the teacher instructed the entire class to hold up their RC. Data were collected on five students who represented the class range in general level of participation, academic skills, and on-task behavior. Results indicated that student participation, specifically the number of student-initiated opportunities to respond and the number of student responses were higher when using RC than when HR was in effect. Students scored higher on the weekly math quiz after the RC condition than after the HR conditions. The percentage of intervals that students were on-task also was higher when RC were used.     

Teaching Spelling of Social Studies Content Vocabulary Prior to Using the Vocabulary in Inclusive Learning Environments: An Examination of Constant Time Delay, Observational Learning, and Instructive Feedback

This study evaluated the effectiveness of using a 5 s constant time delay (CTD) procedure to teach the written spelling of social studies vocabulary words taken from the general education social studies content to students with mild disabilities. Subjects were 3 elementary students with mild disabilities. Instruction was delivered in a small group setting. Vocabulary words were different for each student, which allowed for observational learning by the other students in the group. Assessments of observational learning were conducted when each student attempted to spell their group-mate's words. Related instructive feedback (meaningful sentences containing the social studies vocabulary words) was presented in the consequent event of instructional trials. A multiple probe design across word sets was implemented to evaluate the effectiveness of the procedure. Results indicated that (a) CTD was reliably implemented and all students acquired the spelling of their own sets of 12 social studies vocabulary words with 100% accuracy and maintained this accuracy over time, (b) all students generalized their target spellings across settings and instructors, and (c) some observational and instructive feedback learning occurred for all students. Additionally, long-term maintenance of observational spellings decreased over time, and minor fluctuations in long-term maintenance of instructive feedback occurred.