Using perceptrons to explore the reorientation task

The reorientation task is a paradigm that has been used extensively to study the types of information used by humans and animals to navigate in their environment. In this task, subjects are reinforced for going to a particular location in an arena that is typically rectangular in shape. The subject then has to find that location again after being disoriented, and possibly after changes have been made to the arena. This task is used to determine the geometric and featural cues that can be used to reorient the agent in the arena. The purpose of the present paper is to present several simulation results that show that a simple neural network, a perceptron, can be used to generate many of the traditional findings that have been obtained using the reorientation task. These results suggest that reorientation task regularities can be explained without appealing to a geometric module that is a component of spatial processing.     

Familiar idiom comprehension

Sentences containing idioms used either literally or figuratively were presented repeatedly for 100 msec per presentation. Half of the sentences were preceded by a paragraph. The number of presentations required to read the sentences and cued recall of the sentences were recorded. The serial brief presentations method provided predictable and meaningful results. Sentences containing idioms used literally required more presentations than those containing idioms used figuratively. Cued recall was better for idioms used literally than for those used figuratively. These results are interpreted as support for the Idiomatic Processing Model of idiom comprehension, which suggests that the figurative meaning is processed first; only if that one is inappropriate is the literal meaning processed.     

High Speed: Amphetamine Use in the Context of Conventional Culture

While the use of cannabis is often anchored in subversive values, and the use of heroin is situated at the social margins, the use of amphetamines appears to be associated with more conventional values. Interviews with 55 Norwegian amphetamine and/or methamphetamine users reveal that the substance is used for three main reasons. First, amphetamines are used by binge drinkers to “keep the party going.” Second, amphetamines are used by segments of the marginalized working class to enable them to work longer hours. Third, amphetamines are used medically by some to treat self-diagnosed symptoms of illnesses such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).     

Prediction of Needle Sharing Among Injection Drug Users1

The aim of the present study was to identify the psychosocial factors associated with the intention and behavior of not sharing used needles and syringes among 459 intravenous drug users (IDUs). The intention to not share used needles was positively associated with personal normative beliefs and self‐efficacy; it was negatively related to the proportion of injections with lending used needles and borrowing syringes from sexual partners. Borrowing used needles was negatively associated with intention whereas loaning syringes was positively related to a negative HIV test result. These results suggest that it is only when a direct personal exposure to HIV infection is possible (borrowing) that intention not to borrow is highlighted. Moreover, being HIV positive appears to reduce loaning used syringes.     

Confirmatory Factor Analyses of Scores From Full and Short Versions of the Marlowe–Crowne Social Desirability Scale

Self-report measures are much used in social psychology. However, such measures are susceptible to response bias. The 33-item Marlowe–Crowne Social Desirability scale (Crowne & Marlowe, 1960) is widely used to detect social desirability in responding. This study used confirmatory factor analyses and item and scale analyses to evaluate different, time-saving, short versions of the scale. The results from 633 management undergraduates showed that all the short versions and the 2-factor model are a significant improvement in fit over the full scale. There were no gender differences on the 14 measures. It is recommended that when the full scale is used, the separate attribution and denial scores are also used. Researchers who decide to use a short version should seriously consider Ballard's (1992) Scale 1 or composite versions because the present study identified these as the best short versions.     

The effects of category overlap on information-integration and rule-based category learning

In three experiments, we investigated whether the amount of category overlap constrains the decision strategies used in category learning, and whether such constraints depend on the type of category structures used. Experiments 1 and 2 used a category-learning task requiring perceptual integration of information from multiple dimensions (an information-integration task) and Experiment 3 used a task requiring the application of an explicit strategy (a rule-based task). In the information-integration task, participants used perceptual-integration strategies at moderate levels of category overlap, but explicit strategies at extreme levels of overlap--even when such strategies were suboptimal. In contrast, in the rule-based task, participants used explicit strategies, regardless of the level of category overlap. These data are consistent with a multiple systems view of category learning, and suggest that categorization strategy depends on the type of task that is used, and on the degree to which each stimulus is probabilistically associated with the contrasting categories.     

Of Means and Ends: Religion and the Search for Significance

This article attempts to depolarize the concepts of means and ends in the psychology of religion. It is argued that everyone uses his or her religion. However, religion can be used in constructive as well as destructive ways. The critical question is not whether religion is lived or used, as Allport suggested, but how religion is used and to what ends. Thinking about religion as means and ends rather than means or ends offers a framework for organizing the richly diverse forms and functions of religious life, spiritual as well as nonspiritual. It provides a way to conceptualize and study the widely used but poorly defined notion of religious orientation. It also offers a way to evaluate the efficacy of religion in living.     

Latent class models for testing monotonicity and invariant item ordering for polytomous items

Two assumptions that are relevant to many applications using item response theory are the assumptions of monotonicity (M) and invariant item ordering (IIO). A latent class model is proposed for ordinal items with inequality constraints on the class-specific item means. This model is used as a tool for testing for violations of M and IIO. A Gibbs sampling scheme is used for estimating the model parameters. It is shown that the deviance information criterion can be used as an overall test of M and IIO, while posterior predictive checks can be used to test these assumptions at the item level. A real data application illustrates a model-fitting strategy for detecting items that violate M and IIO.     

Analysis of variance with Fourier analysis of coherent data

Like orthogonal polynomials, the sine and cosine components used in Fourier analysis are orthogonal under summation over equally spaced points. Therefore, they can be used in the same way as orthogonal polynomials are used with analysis of variance. They are usually used on records consisting of sequences of observations taken equally spaced in time. Analysis of variance can be performed on replicated records. The most straightforward cases occur under the following conditions: (1) The phenomenon is periodic, (2) the phenomenon is coherent (synchronized) over the various replicates, (3) the record length is an integral multiple of the fundamental period, and (4) the phenomenon is not buried too deeply in noise. Two numerical examples are examined that satisfy these conditions. Planning is illustrated for a case that violates Conditions 3 and 4.     

Adolescent males' sexual behavior and contraceptive use: implications for male responsibility

A recent US survey of single 17-21 year old men, indicated that 17.1% used a condom at 1st intercourse and 15.5% used a condom at the most recent intercourse. Withdrawal is also used: 10.0% and 7.4% respectively. Condom use was correlated with being older at 1st intercourse, having a higher educational level, closer association to partner, and sense of male contraceptive responsibility. The data used for this analysis was taken from a sub-sample of 624 sexually active males in 1979. The mean age at 1st intercourse was 14.8 years and mean age at most recent was 18.9 years. The pill was also used at 1st intercourse (8.8%) and a total of 43.5% used some method of contraception. In the most recent intercourse cases, 64.7% used some method of birth control and the pill was used 26.5% , condom 15.5%, and withdrawal 7.4%. Conclusions from this data indicate that male methods are important in teen contraception. Condom use at 1st and most recent intercourse was related to both positive and negative characteristics. It appears that males show some contraceptive responsibility initially but later give the responsibility to females. The declining use of condoms indicates it to be a transitional form of birth control. Programs should promote continued use of condoms since use of the pill is low and unwanted pregnancy risk is high. Communication on contraception should be encouraged, so both partners are aware if neither one is contracepting. With the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome epidemic, condom use takes on a whole new context in relation to the decline in use by adolescents.     

Nozick's experience machine is dead,long live the experience machine!

Robert Nozick's experience machine thought experiment (Nozick's scenario) is widely used as the basis for a “knockdown” argument against all internalist mental state theories of well-being. Recently, however, it has been convincingly argued that Nozick's scenario should not be used in this way because it elicits judgments marred by status quo bias and other irrelevant factors. These arguments all include alternate experience machine thought experiments, but these scenarios also elicit judgments marred by status quo bias and other irrelevant factors. In this paper, several experiments are conducted in order to create and test a relatively bias-free experience machine scenario. It is argued that if an experience machine thought experiment is used to evaluate internalist mental state theories of well-being, then this relatively bias-free scenario should be used over any of the existing scenarios. Unlike the existing experience machine scenarios, when this new scenario is used to assess internalist mental state theories of well-being, it does not provide strong evidence to refute or endorse them.     

Response-times at different positions within a sentence

Response latency has often been used to draw inferences about scanning operations in serial lists. Different models have been employed and this experiment tests their predictions when a sentence replaces a serial list. Constituent analysis is used to predict an increase in latency when responding involves crossing a constituent boundary. This prediction is confirmed, and it is found necessary to revise those explanations derived from studies using serial lists to include reference to the syntactic structure of the linguistic material used.     

Use of current explanations in multicausal abductive reasoning

In multicausal abductive tasks a person must explain some findings by assembling a composite hypothesis that consists of one or more elementary hypotheses. If there are n elementary hypotheses, there can be up to 2ⁿ composite hypotheses. To constrain the search for hypotheses to explain a new observation, people sometimes use their current explanation—the previous evidence and their present composite hypothesis of that evidence; however, it is unclear when and how the current explanation is used. In addition, although a person's current explanation can narrow the search for a hypothesis, it can also blind the problem solver to alternative, possibly better, explanations. This paper describes a model of multicausal abductive reasoning that makes two predictions regarding the use of the current explanation. The first prediction is that the current explanation is not used to explain new evidence if there is a simple (i.e., nondisjunctive, concrete) hypothesis to account for that evidence. The second prediction is that the current explanation is used when attempting to discriminate among several alternative hypotheses for new evidence. These hypotheses were tested in three experiments. The results are consistent with the second prediction: the current explanation is used when discriminating among alternative hypotheses. However, the first prediction—that the current explanation is not used when a simple hypothesis can account for new data—received only limited support. Participants used the current explanation to constrain their interpretation of new data in 46.5% of all trials. This suggests that context-independent strategies compete with context-dependent ones—an interpretation that is consistent with recent work on strategy selection during problem solving.     

TO LEAD, LAG, OR MATCH: ESTIMATING THE FINANCIAL IMPACT OF PAY LEVEL POLICIES

In this study, the Boudreau and Berger (1985a) retention/acquisition model is modified in order to develop a utility model that can be used to assess the impact of alternative pay level policies. This paper then demonstrates how the model could be used to assess the financial impact of alternative pay level policies for an organization whose current policy is to match the market. In demonstrating this, estimates of the effect of pay level on employee and applicant behaviors are presented. The utility model is then used to translate these effects into financial terms and compare them against the wage costs associated with alternative pay level policies. Finally, break-even analysis is used to suggest how decision makers might use utility results when making decisions about pay level policy. The implications for pay level policy and the role of utility analysis in compensation decision making are discussed.     

Conceptualizing and measuring perceptions of sexual attractiveness: Are there differences across gender and sexual orientation?

There is no consistent conceptualization of sexual attractiveness in the literature. The present paper reviews previous literature on sexual attractiveness, examining the different terms used to refer to sexual attractiveness, as well as the measures designed to evaluate perceptions of sexual attractiveness. A new measure of self-perceptions of sexual attractiveness is proposed and psychometrically tested based on this material. The review of the literature demonstrates that there are multiple, often ambiguous, terms used in relation to sexual attractiveness, with few definitions provided. Additionally, there is no standardized measure of perceptions of sexual attractiveness. Single item measures are commonly used to assess an individual’s perceptions of their own or of another’s sexual attractiveness, and few studies provide a psychometric evaluation of the measures used. A clearer picture of sexual attractiveness is formed in this paper and, with this, a new scale measuring self-perceptions of sexual attractiveness is developed. The new scale is a valid and reliable measure of self-perceived sexual attractiveness that may be used among men and women who identify as heterosexual, gay, lesbian or bisexual. Furthermore, the findings suggest that sexual attractiveness may be conceptualized similarly across gender and sexual orientation.     

An integrative typology of personality assessment for aggression: implications for predicting counterproductive workplace behavior

This study presents an integrative typology of personality assessment for aggression. In this typology, self-report and conditional reasoning (L. R. James, 1998) methodologies are used to assess 2 separate, yet often congruent, components of aggressive personalities. Specifically, self-report is used to assess explicit components of aggressive tendencies, such as self-perceived aggression, whereas conditional reasoning is used to assess implicit components, in particular, the unconscious biases in reasoning that are used to justify aggressive acts. These 2 separate components are then integrated to form a new theoretical typology of personality assessment for aggression. Empirical tests of the typology were subsequently conducted using data gathered across 3 samples in laboratory and field settings and reveal that explicit and implicit components of aggression can interact in the prediction of counterproductive, deviant, and prosocial behaviors. These empirical tests also reveal that when either the self-report or conditional reasoning methodology is used in isolation, the resulting assessment of aggression may be incomplete. Implications for personnel selection, team composition, and executive coaching are discussed.     

Computer-Based Assessment of Special-Needs Students

The assessment of special-needs students is recognized as an important but somewhat troublesome task for many educators. Emerging microcomputer technology can be used to overcome some of the inherent problems in the assessment process. This article describes how microcomputers are currently being used in the assessment of reading and spelling skills. In addition, an overview of "expert systems" is provided, as well as a discussion of how this segment of the field of artificial intelligence is beginning to be used in the assessment of special-needs students.     

Counselors' and Counselor Educators' Practice of Mindfulness: A Qualitative Inquiry

The Buddhist practice of mindfulness is being used more often both to help clients and to facilitate counselor effectiveness. A growing body of research supports these uses of mindfulness. Most authors also emphasize that those who teach mindfulness must also apply it themselves. However, little is known about how counselors and counselor educators incorporate mindfulness into their personal and professional lives. The current study used semistructured interviews to elicit such information from 6 counselors and counselor educators. A constant comparative method was used to analyze the data and synthesize themes. Emergent themes included practices used to cultivate mindfulness and the results of mindfulness practices.     

Feature-based versus category-based induction with uncertain categories

Previous research has suggested that when feature inferences have to be made about an instance whose category membership is uncertain, feature-based inductive reasoning is used to the exclusion of category-based induction. These results contrast with the observation that people can and do use category-based induction when category membership is known. The present experiments examined the conditions that drive feature-based and category-based strategies in induction under category uncertainty. Specifically, 2 experiments investigated whether reliance on feature-based inductive strategies is a product of the lack of coherence in the categories used in previous research or is due to the use of a decision-only induction procedure. Experiment 1 found that feature-based reasoning remained the preferred strategy even when categories with relatively high internal coherence were used. Experiment 2 found a shift toward category-based reasoning when participants were trained to classify category members prior to feature induction. Together, these results suggest that an appropriate conceptual representation must be formed through experience with a category before it is likely to be used as a basis for feature induction.     

Determining the significance of scale values from multidimensional scaling profile analysis using a resampling method

Although multidimensional scaling (MDS) profile analysis is widely used to study individual differences, there is no objective way to evaluate the statistical significance of the estimated scale values. In the present study, a resampling technique (bootstrapping) was used to construct confidence limits for scale values estimated from MDS profile analysis. These bootstrap confidence limits were used, in turn, to evaluate the significance of marker variables of the profiles. The results from analyses of both simulation data and real data suggest that the bootstrap method may be valid and may be used to evaluate hypotheses about the statistical significance of marker variables of MDS profiles.