A Study of Black and White College Women

In an examination of career aspirations, 101 black and 530 white college women were asked to indicate their occupational and educational plans, important considerations for career choices, and their attitudes toward combining the roles of career and family. Results indicated that women who planned careers in male-dominated occupations had higher career and educational aspirations than women who desired careers in femaledominated occupations. Black women who planned careers in male-dominated professions showed high levels of aspirations, planned more education than was necessary for the desired occupations, and perceived less conflict in combining the roles of career and family than their white counterparts. There were few differences between black and white women in their attitudes toward the traditional roles of men and women. Those choosing female-dominated careers, however, had more traditional attitudes regardless of race. Implications of these findings for the influence of occupational gender dominance on career aspirations are discussed.     

Career Counseling Black Women in a Predominantly White Coeducational University

A career counseling workshop for Black women featuring the Model—Mentor Process may be an alternative career intervention in a predominantly White coeducational university.     

Black Women and White Women in Groups: Suggestions for Minority-Sensitive Group Services on University Campuses

Similarities and differences between group dynamics of one all-Black-woman's support group and one all-White-woman's support group are presented and discussed in terms of future implications for university counseling center program development.     

At the Crossroads: Racial and Womanist Identity Development in Black and White Women

This study explored the hypothesis that womanist identity and racial identity development are related. The racial identiy and womanist identity attitudes of 214 women were measured using the Black Racial Identity Attitude Scale, the White Racial Identity Attitude Scales (WRIAS), and the Womanist Identity Attitude Scale. Canonical correlation analysis was used to determine the nature of relationships among racial identity and womanist identity attitudes. Results showed that for Black women there was a significant relation between racial identity and womanist identity attitudes. Specifically, Internalization attitudes on the WRIAS were positively related to Level II (Encounter) and Level IV (Internalization) attitudes on the Womanist Identity Attitude Scale. Despite a larger number of White participants, no such relationship emerged for White women. Implications for theory, research, and counseling are discussed.     

Black Women

No abstract available for this article.     

A Cross-Cultural Exploration: Body Image in Older Black and White Women in the Workplace

This study investigated body image attitudes in a non-clinical sample of black and white older professional women in the workplace in South Africa. Participants were 125 professional women (white woman n=76 and black women n = 49). They completed the shortened version of the Body Shape Questionnaire (BSQ) (Cooper, Taylor, Cooper & Fairburn, 1987). The BSQ is a self-report instrument that measures weight and shape concerns. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and t-tests for independent samples were used to determine the univariate relationships between variables. Following this, a two-way analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was conducted to explore the interaction between ethnicity and BMI. The results indicate that Body Mass Index (BMI) and ethnicity are significantly and independently related to the body shape image. Women with higher BMI scores tended to have more concern about their bodies. Black women with higher BMI scores had more concerns than their white colleagues.     

How Race Matters and Does Not Matter for White Women in Relationships with Black Men

SUMMARY

Drawing on a qualitative research study, this article provides a beginning exploration for how race both matters and does not matter in white women's relationships with black men. As a means of protecting themselves and their families from pathologizing stereotypes about interracial couples, women make claims that race does not matter. At the same time, they describe ways that stereotypes impact their self identities and their couple interactions. Different situations and relationships create shifts in racial interpretations, and contact with extended family members can change racial meanings. The article offers suggestions for how to create a therapeutic space for discussing race without over-determining its significance.     

Race and Women's Identity Development: Distinguishing Between Feminism and Womanism Among Black and White Women

Black and White women may experience feminist identity development differently, and the womanist (Ossana, Helms, & Leonard, 1992) and feminist (Downing & Roush, 1985) identity development models may differ in their ability to capture those experiences. Black (n = 29) and White (n = 94) female college students completed a questionnaire that included feminist identity, womanist identity, and self-esteem scales. Results provided partial support for the hypothesis that Black women would agree more strongly with the womanist model, whereas White women would agree more strongly with the feminist model. In addition, the womanist model better differentiated between stages of identity development than did the feminist model for Black women. Results also partially supported the hypothesis that race would moderate the relationships between the womanist and feminist identity models and self-esteem.     

Personality Types and Vocational Choice: A Test of Holland's Theory

In order to test the adequacy of Holland's theory of vocational choice with reference to a broad segment of entering college students, a sample of the freshman class entering the Pennsylvania State University evaluated themselves in terms of the six personality styles of Holland's theory. Relationships between the personality styles and vocational choices were studied for groups of Decided, Tentative, and Undecided students. While several inversions in the data are evident, the data possess sufficient consistency to indicate that the personality identifications these students made in Holland's frame of reference were related to their initial vocational choices.     

Reading Representations of Black, East Asian, and White Women in Magazines for Adolescent Girls

Beginning in the 1970s, there has been a growing body of literature on the depictions of women in advertisements. However, the intersection of race and gender in advertising has rarely been explored. This study was designed to compare how White, Black, and East Asian women were portrayed in advertisements found in fashion magazines directed at adolescent girls. A correlation was found between race and the type of product advertised. Black women were prominent in clothing advertisements, and East Asian women were prominent in advertisements for technology products. A correlation was also found between race and the importance of the model in the advertisement. The results of this study illustrate that older stereotypes may still exist (White beauty ideal, hypersexual Black women), and some new stereotypes are being formed (technologically savvy East Asians).     

Black Women and the Future

Black women's influence upon and reaction to social and economic change in the dawn of the twenty-first century are examined. Selected trends in labor force participation and family organization are discussed in relation to possible consequences for black women's role in the family and the socialization of black females. The importance of religion in black women's future is discussed, and it is suggested that they will have an increasing role as religious leaders and concomitant opportunities for organizing around women's issues. Finally, black women's renewed interest in Africa is discussed and implications for personal and community enhancement are examined.     

Linking Femininity, Weight Concern, and Mental Health among Latina, Black, and White Women

Studies examining women's appearance ideals and weight concern have predominantly relied on samples of White women. This study addresses this oversight, examining the different relations among embodied femininity, weight concern, and depressive symptomatology that exist for different groups of women. Using a nationally representative sample of women between the ages of 18 and 45, bivariate analyses were conducted using three samples of Latina, Black, and White women. When sample size allowed, a multivariate model was tested (i.e., for Black and White respondents). Results confirm, as hypothesized, different patterns of relations between embodied femininity, weight concern, and depressive symptomatology for each of the samples. At the bivariate level, embodied femininity, weight concern, and depressive symptomatology were positively intercorrelated among Latina respondents. Whereas weight concern fully mediated the relation between embodied femininity and depressive symptomatology for the White respondents, the mediational model was not borne out for the Black respondents. For the latter, although embodied femininity and weight concern were related, weight concern was unrelated to depressive symptoms. Both of these patterns are discussed, as well as the need for greater empirical sensitivity to various constructions of femininity among women of different ethnicities.     

The Perpetual Outsider: Voices of Black Women Pursuing Doctoral Degrees at Predominantly White Institutions

This qualitative study explored the perceptions and experiences of Black female doctoral students at predominantly White institutions and their impact on academic persistence and overall well‐being. Fifteen Black female doctoral students participated in semistructured interviews, and each one was administered a demographic questionnaire and was extended an opportunity to participate in member checking. All data collected from the semistructured interviews, demographic questionnaires, and member‐checking exercises were analyzed using Black feminist thought as an interpretive lens. Whereas several themes emerged and are discussed in previous articles (Shavers & Moore, 2014a, 2014b), this article focused on the “Perpetual Outsider” theme, comprising the following subthemes: (a) unwelcoming spaces, (b) tokenism, and (c) outsiders at home. Implications are offered based on identity, support systems, and group counseling. Este estudio cualitativo exploró las percepciones y experiencias de estudiantes negras de doctorado en instituciones predominantemente blancas, así como su impacto en la persistencia académica y bienestar general. Quince estudiantes negras de doctorado participaron en entrevistas semiestructuradas, y a cada una de ellas se les administró un cuestionario demográfico y se les ofreció la oportunidad de participar en seguimientos de miembros. Todos los datos recopilados a partir de las entrevistas semiestructuradas, los cuestionarios demográficos y los ejercicios de seguimiento de miembros fueron analizados e interpretados desde la perspectiva del pensamiento feminista negro. Aunque surgieron varios temas que se comentan en artículos anteriores (Shavers & Moore, 2014a, 2014b), este artículo se centra en el tema del “Forastero perpetuo”, que incluye los siguientes subtemas: (a) espacios hostiles, (b) representación simbólica y (c) forasteros en casa. Se ofrecen implicaciones basadas en la identidad, sistemas de apoyo y consejería de grupo.     

Ego Development at the Crossroads: Identity and Intimacy Among Black Men and White Women in Cross-Racial Relationships

This study addressed the ego development of White women and Black men who were in cross-racial relationships. Twenty-one participants completed in-depth, individual interviews, focus group inquiries, and the Sentence Completion Test (SCT). The results indicate that a majority of the participants scored at the higher levels of ego development: 50% of the Black males and 67% of the White females were at the conscientious stage of ego development, 25% of the Black males and 22% of the White females were at the individuated stage. The results from the interviews and the focus groups substantiated the participants' scores on the SCT, exemplifying the complexity in which Black men and White women perceive themselves as individuals and others in relationships. Loevinger (1976, Ego development: Conceptions and theories. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.) contends that these higher stages represent a complex means of understanding oneself and of interacting in intimate relationships. The terms of African American heritage, African American, and Black are used synonymously and interchangeably, as are the terms of European American heritage, European American, and White.     

Denying Diversity: Perceptions of Beauty and Social Comparison Processes Among Latina,Black, and White Women

The purpose of this study was to investigate Latina, Black, and White women's conceptions of beauty and perceptions of cultural standards of beauty, as well as whether or not the participants were engaging in similar social comparison processes, specifically, the denial of personal disadvantage. One hundred and fifty-seven college women participated: 48 Latinas, 52 Black women, 51 White women, and 6 Others. Results indicate that there are significant differences in Latinas', Black women's, and White women's relationships with their bodies, and their relationships to dominant cultural standards of beauty. In addition, there were differences by race in the tendency to engage in the denial of personal disadvantage response. These findings contribute to the understanding of how racial identity affects, or interacts with, the experience of beauty standards among Latina, Black, and White women.     

Examining the Association Between Body Mass Index and Weight Related Quality of Life in Black and White Women

Obesity not only increases risk for morbidity/mortality, but also impacts the quality of life of obese individuals. In the United States, black women have the highest prevalence of obesity of any other group with approximately 80% of black women over age 20 having a body mass index (BMI)????25?kg/m². We aimed to examine the association between BMI and quality of life in this high risk population compared to this association in white women, using the Impact of Weight on Quality of Life (IWQOL)-Lite questionnaire. Data from 172 black women (mean BMI?=?35.7; age?=?40.5) and 171 white women (mean BMI?=?35.5; age?=?40.4) were collected between 2000 and 2010 analyzed in 2010. The mean IWQOL-Lite total score was 81.6 for black women compared to 66.9 for white women, a statistically significant difference. Hierarchical linear regression models revealed a significant BMI-by-race interaction indicating that the relationship between BMI and IWQOL-Lite score was moderated by race. Our findings suggest notable differences in weight-related quality of life in black and white women. At similar BMIs, black women consistently reported better quality of life than white women on all IWQOL-Lite subscales. The greatest difference in IWQOL-Lite scores between black and white women was seen in the self-esteem subscale. Additional research is needed to understand how to incorporate the weight perspectives of black women into weight management messages and interventions.     

White Flowers/Black Berries

Women Who Run With the Wolves: Myths and Stories of the Wild Woman Archetype. Clarissa Pinkola Estés. New York: Ballantine, 1992.

God Is a Trauma. By Greg Mogenson. Dallas: Spring, 1989.

Lilith—The First Eve: Historical and Psychological Aspects of the Dark Feminine. By Siegmund Hurwitz. Switzerland: Daimon-Verlag, 1992.

Ultradian Rhythms in Life Processes: An Inquiry Into Fundamental Principles of Chronobiology and Psychobiology. Edited by David Lloyd and Ernest L. Rossi. New York: Springer-Verlag.

Theft of the Spirit: A Journey to Spiritual Healing with Native Americans. By Carl A. Hammerschlag, M.D. New York: Simon &; Schuster, 1993.

Meeting the Madwoman: An Inner Challenge for the Feminine Spirit. By Linda Schierse Leonard. New York: Bantam, 1993.

Beginner's Guide to Jungian Psychology. By Robin Robertson. York Beach, Maine: Nicolas-Hays, 1992.     

White Women and the Dark Mother

One of the foremost champions of the ‘Dark Mother’ today is the overwhelmingly white feminist spirituality movement, based in the United States and Europe. Over the past twenty-five years, white spiritual feminists have approached the figure of the Dark Mother, which is borrowed from Hindu, African and Christian sources, with a uniquely fraught mix of longing, envy, hope, fear and guilt. This article first discusses the explicit justifications that white spiritual feminists offer for the incorporation of the Dark Mother into their religiosity, including their analysis of how the concepts of ‘lightness’ and ‘darkness’ are deployed and gendered in patriarchal religions. It then argues that, contrary to spiritual feminist claims, the Dark Mother as such does not exist cross-culturally but is rather the joint creation of the history of religions, Jungian psychology and spiritual feminist ingenuity, and that she is constructed and utilised primarily as a means of working through white racial guilt.