Inferential Internalism and Reflective Defeat

Inferential Internalists accept the Principle of Inferential Justification (PIJ), according to which one has justification for believing P on the basis of E only if one has justification for believing that E makes probable P. Richard Fumerton has defended PIJ by appeal to examples, and recently Adam Leite has argued that this principle is supported by considerations regarding the nature of responsible belief. In this paper, I defend a form of externalism against both arguments. This form of externalism recognizes what I call the phenomenon of reflective defeat: if one is justified in not believing that E makes probable P, then this defeats whatever justification one has for believing P upon the basis of E. I argue that this modified version of externalism has the virtue of accommodating the intuitions that motivate internalism, without the cost of the vicious regress that makes internalism so unattractive.     

Psychological distress and burnout in australian employment service workers: Two years on

During 2001, 152 case managers providing intensive assistance to the unemployed completed the 12‐item General Health Questionnaire (D. P. Goldberg, 1978) and the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI; C. Maslach, S. E. Jackson, & M. P. Leiter, 1996). Of the 152 case managers, 48% endorsed responses indicating psychological distress, and on emotional exhaustion, the core dimension of burnout on the MBI, the mean for these case managers was significantly higher than that published for other human service workers. The results confirm data from a 1999 longitudinal study and indicate significant levels of burnout and distress in employment service case managers in the Australian Job Network.     

Beliefs about aggression in British students from individualist and collectivist cultures

This study assessed the hypothesis that people from an individualist culture (100 British Anglo‐Saxon students) would show higher instrumental (I) and lower expressive (E) beliefs about aggression than those from a collectivist culture (100 British Asian students). The hypothesis was not supported and, at an individual level, there was no association between cultural orientation and beliefs about aggression. Asians showed higher I beliefs about their aggression than did Anglo‐Saxons, and the typical sex differences in I and E beliefs were more pronounced in the Asian than the Anglo‐Saxon sample. The study also assessed the relationship between I and E beliefs and instrumental and expressive personality traits in the two cultures. Moderate associations were found between I and E beliefs and the corresponding instrumental and expressive personality traits, which were unrelated to measures of cultural orientation. These findings show that despite superficial similarities in measures of cultural orientation, beliefs about aggression, and gender stereotypic traits, they are relatively unrelated constructs. Aggr. Behav. 31:000–000, 2005. © 2005 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Organizational climate and company productivity: The role of employee affect and employee level

Consistent with a growing number of models about affect and behaviour and with a recognition that perception alone provides no impetus for action, it was predicted that associations between company climate and productivity would be mediated by average level of job satisfaction. In a study of 42 manufacturing companies, subsequent productivity was significantly correlated in controlled analyses with eight aspects of organizational climate (e.g. skill development and concern for employee welfare) and also with average job satisfaction. The mediation hypothesis was supported in hierarchical multiple regressions for separate aspects of climate. In addition, an overall analysis showed that company productivity was more strongly correlated with those aspects of climate that had stronger satisfaction loadings. A second prediction, that managers' perceptions of climate would be more closely linked to company productivity than would those of non‐managers, was not supported. However, managers' assessments of most aspects of their company's climate were significantly more positive than those of non‐managers.     

Procedural Fairness, Managers' Self-Esteem, and Managerial Behaviors Following a Layoff

The present research examined the predictors and consequences associated with managers' reactions to job layoffs. Whereas previous research suggests that procedural unfairness lowers self-esteem, we hypothesized that, in a downsizing context, the relationship between procedural unfairness and lower self-esteem would be more pronounced among managers than nonmanagers. The results of Study 1 supported the hypothesis and showed that the findings were attributable to managers' greater organizational commitment. Study 2 showed that managers who perceived procedures to be less fair were less likely to report practicing the behaviors needed from effective managers in times of change. Moreover, the relationship between procedural unfairness and managers' behaviors was mediated by their self-esteem. Subordinates of managers who engaged in less effective managerial behaviors, in turn, had more negative perceptions of their immediate work environments. Copyright 2000 Academic Press.     

Working 61 plus hours a week: why do managers do it?

The authors investigated why some managers work extreme hours, defined as 61 or more hours per week. The authors tested explanations drawn from theories including the work-leisure tradeoff, work as an emotional respite, social contagion, and work as its own reward. In a demographically homogeneous sample of male managers, the best explanations for why some worked 61 or more hours per week were the financial and psychological rewards they received from doing so. The hypothesis derived from A. Hochschild's (1997) research that managers who work long hours seek relief at work from pressures at home was not supported. Findings in a small sample of managerial women were consistent with the work-leisure trade-off hypothesis, the social contagion hypothesis, and the work as its own reward hypothesis.     

大学生自发反应式的互联自我与独立自我:性别差异与专业差异

Ｍａｒｋｕｓ和Ｋｉｔａｙａｍａ的自我构念理论以文化差异为基础,将人的自我观念分为独立自我和互联自我,研究假说,体育专业的学习由于有更多的社会交互作用,有助于培养学生的互联自我,文理专业的学习由于有列多的独立性,有助于培养学生的独立自我,应用２０项陈述测验对２５８名大学生的研究部分地支持了这一假设;体育专业学生有更多的具体化自我表述,文理专业学生有更多的抽象化自我表述,但是,两类学生在自我定向和社会     

Can't serve customers right? An indirect effect of co‐workers' counterproductive behaviour in the service environment

In this paper, I suggest that counterproductive behaviour in the workplace has ripple effects throughout the service environment. Specifically, it was hypothesized that co‐workers' organizationally and interpersonally directed counterproductive behaviour will have a negative, indirect association with focal employees' service performance, through the mediation of psychological perceptions of climate for service. Survey data were collected from 293 employees and their corresponding managers working at a fast‐food restaurant chain, consisting of 16 stores. Structural equation modelling results supported the hypothesized relationships.     

Risk propensity differences between managers and entrepreneurs and between low- and high-growth entrepreneurs: a reply in a more conservative vein

A recent article (W. H. Stewart & P. L. Roth, 2001) in the Journal of Applied Psychology presented the conclusion from meta-analysis that entrepreneurs have a higher risk propensity than managers and that this propensity is particularly pronounced among the growth-oriented. A previously unresolved question was said to be laid to rest and a "vital component" of a theory of entrepreneurship established. The present article disagrees and cites data from 14 studies not included in the Stewart and Roth (2001) analysis, adding up to a conclusion (supported by new meta-analyses) that entrepreneurs (and those with a growth orientation) are more risk avoidant. Thus, a conservative view, retaining the position that the role of risk propensity in entrepreneurship remains unresolved, is upheld. Potential explanations for the conflicting results are explored.     

Personality variations as an effect of pre-menstrual tensions

The present work on pre-menstrual tension (PMT) was conducted on 32 females—16 married and 16 unmarried. These subjects were administered the Moos Menstrual Distress Questionnaire (MMDQ) and Eyesenck's PEN Questionnaire once immediately before, and a second time after finishing, the period of menstruation. The results showed that there were significant differences on Psychoticism (P) and Neuroticism (N) in low and high PMT females; the former scoring low on both dimensions. There was a significant decline in the scores of both N and P in the post-menstrual phase of the high PMT group. In both the groups there were significant changes on Extraversion (E/I) but the direction was opposite. The high PMT group showed an increase in E/I and the low PMT group showed a decrease in E/I in the post-menstrual phase.     

Agreement in Self–Other Ratings of Leader Effectiveness: The role of demographics and personality

Personality and demographic attributes for a set of 1221 focal managers were examined as correlates of leadership effectiveness evaluations that were obtained via a 360° feedback program. Polynomial regression was used to study the congruence of self‐ratings provided by focal managers relative to the different evaluative perspectives (i.e., immediate superior, peer, and subordinate). Analyses supported the prediction that focal manager's sex and age would be associated with the ratings provided by themselves and others. Plus, the tendency to overestimate one's own leader effectiveness relative to evaluations provided by others was found to be greater for males and older managers. Focal managers who expressed greater social sensitivity were evaluated more favorably by subordinates and peers, although not by superiors. Ratings of leader effectiveness from immediate superiors were, instead, more readily predicted by judgments of the performance of the focal manager's organizational unit relative to comparable units. Results of polynomial regression analysis, however, indicated that self–other agreement was related to the focal's sex, social sensitivity, and social dominance. Implications for understanding obstacles to openness to change are discussed.     

Managers' perceptions of workplace romances: An interview study

Although workplace romances occur frequently, no research has directly examined managers' perceptions of these relationships. In this study, managers (N=30) were interviewed about workplace romances. Included in these interviews were questions about organizational policies regarding these relationships, knowledge of prior or current workplace romances, and reactions to workplace romances and the participants in those relationships. Managers also responded to 12 items designed to assess the effect of different characteristics of workplace romances on perceptions of the need for management intervention. Responses to these items indicated that managers were most likely to recommend intervention when the relationship occurred between unequal organizational status participants, and it was negatively affecting the work group. The hypothesis that women managers would respond more negatively than would male managers to workplace romances was not supported. Factors that may affect managers' reactions to participants in workplace romances are discussed.This paper is based on research conducted by the first author with the direction of the second author. Funding was provided by the Psychology Department and Office of Research Services at Bowling Green State University.     

Explaining sex differences in managerial career satisfier preferences: the role of gender self-schema

Using survey data from 400 managers, the authors examined whether gender self-schema would explain sex differences in preferences for status-based and socioemotional career satisfiers. Female gender self-schema, represented by femininity and family role salience, completely mediated the relationship between managers' sex and preferences for socioemotional career satisfiers. However, male gender self-schema, represented by masculinity and career role salience, did not mediate the relationship between managers' sex and preferences for status-based career satisfiers. As expected, male managers regarded status-based career satisfiers as more important and socioemotional career satisfiers as less important than female managers did. The proposed conceptualization of male and female gender self-schemas, which was supported by the data, enhances understanding of adult self-schema and work-related attitudes and behavior.     

The interactional model of anxiety: an evaluation of the differential hypothesis

The interactional model of anxiety states that individuals who score high on trait anxiety measure for a specific situation dimension will respond with elevated state anxiety only in reaction to encounters with congruent situations. We tested this model by presenting subjects who scored high or low on ego threat, physical danger, novelty ambiguity, and daily routine trait measures with stressors representative of the four situation dimensions. The interactional model was partially supported for ego threat trait anxiety. However, results generally supported the influence of situation rather than the trait or interaction on anxiety response. The lack of trait factor independence for the novelty ambiguity and daily routine trait dimensions is discussed as a potential reason for the nonsupport of the interactional model. Finally, we suggest that the experimental design used in this study is a more accurate and vigorous test of the differential hypothesis than past research.     

The effects of manual tracing on memory in normal and retarded readers: Some implications for multi-sensory teaching

Summary The present experiments address two interrelated problems; the causes of reading retardation and the possible mechanisms underlying multi-sensory teaching procedures, which involve manually tracing around words, and which reputedly help children retarded in reading. Two experiments explored the effects of manual tracing on memory for letters and non-verbal forms in normal and retarded readers. The retarded readers remembered fewer letters and gained selective benefit from tracing them. In the case of non-verbal forms the two groups performed equally and tracing was equally beneficial to memory in both groups. These findings were explained in terms of the retarded readers' limited reliance on a phonological memory code. A further experiment showed that the differential effect of tracing on the retarded readers' memory for letters was not simply a consequence of their limited reading ability. It was concluded that reading retardation is characterised by deficits of verbal, but not of visual, memory. The tracing activity involved in multi-sensory teaching may help retarded readers by providing a mnemonic aid, which compensates for their verbal memory difficulties.This research was carried out at the Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, and was supported by the SSRC. I should like to thank Dr. D.E. Broadbent and Professor P.E. Bryant for their help and Dr. L. Bradley for providing information concerning some of the children seen in Experiment 3. A more complete account of these experiments and others relating to them is to be found in Hulme, C. (in press), Reading retardation and multi-sensory teaching: an experimental study. Routledge & Kegan Paul, London     

An Attributional Analysis of Social Accounts: Implications of Playing the Blame Game1

These studies proposed that effective social accounts should contain external, unstable, specific, and uncontrollable attributions. In Study I, managers provided accounts for a negative event. The accounts contained highly unstable and specific attributions but, contrary to original predictions, they also contained highly internal and controllable attributions. In Study 2, managers rated the effectiveness of the account. Account effectiveness was positively related to unstable attributions, but was negatively related to external and uncontrollable attributions. These relationships were stronger (more negative) for accounts communicated downward than upward. These results indicate that blaming others or deflecting personal responsibility for negative events may be ineffective, especially when one is in a high‐status role.     

Parental Loss in Children as Reflected in Projective Responses

Fisher and Cleveland originally proposed that individuals differ in exterior-interior body awareness. A study was conducted in a population of 61 men and 43 women to examine this hypothesis. Tachistocopic recognition times for picture categories depicting the exterior and interior (E and I) body sectors were ascertained. A chi square analysis revealed that these recognition times were significantly related (P = 0.01) to Rorschach measures reflecting E-I awareness. An additional finding was that men recognized the I category more rapidly. This was considered to provide further support for the hypothesis that men have accentuated I awareness. An outline was given of ongoing work designed to measure the extent of the tachistoscope's regional specificity.     

时间距离对记叙文倒叙信息表征的影响

采用移动窗口技术和探测——再认范式探讨了时间距离对记叙文倒叙信息表征的影响。本研究分为两个实验：实验1考察了在近时间距离条件下读者如何表征倒叙信息,结果发现读者会根据时间顺序,把倒叙信息整合到他们的表征中去,支持时间顺序假设;实验2考察了在远时间距离条件下读者如何表征倒叙信息,结果发现读者会根据文本叙述顺序,将倒叙信息作为背景信息整合到该事件中去,支持背景假设。上述结果表明,时间距离是影响读者如何对倒叙信息进行表征的重要因素。     

Sex and least preferred co-worker score effects in leadership behavior

This study investigated the subordinate liking and the leadership style of male and female managers in a simulated business activity. Sixty-seven female and 290 male undergraduate and graduate business students participated in this study. Female managers, on average, were not less well liked, nor were they more accommodative than male managers. Among managers classified as distinctly accommodative, females were not better liked than males; among managers classified as distinctly directive, females were significantly better liked than males. Under pressure to act in a directive manner, males tended to make use of their secondary leadership style as defined by F. E. Fiedler (1972), while females did not.     

Subtractive versus Ratio Model of “Fair” Allocation: Can the Group Level Analyses Be Misleading?

Two models of equity judgments are ratio and subtraction. Proponents of the former assume a linear relationship between the subjective feelings of equity and their overt expressions; those of the latter assume a monotonic relationship. Consequently, the ratio and subtractive rules are tested with the raw and monotonically rescaled data, respectively. I evaluated these two approaches with managers and students from India. Experiment 1 varied merit and pay of two persons and obtained judgments of difference between unfairness to them. Experiments 2 and 3 manipulated two inputs of two persons and studied “fair” reward for them. I analyzed both the raw and rescaled data at the group and individual levels. The group analyses supported the ratio model; the individual analyses showed that majority was consistent with the subtractive model. Discrepant results from these analyses were due to individual differences in the models employed and use of the response scale. Implications of the findings are discussed for cross-cultural and developmental research in “fair” allocation.