Racial groups and test fairness, considering history and construct validity

According to Helms, "test fairness" is defined as "removal from test scores of systematic variance attributable to experiences of racial or cultural socialization." Some of Helms's reasoning is based on earlier work, which recommended that racial group or category variables be replaced entirely with individual-level constructs, to reflect racial socialization experiences that vary within racial groups. Treatment of the test fairness issue--a social and political issue--will benefit from explicitly considering historical events that contributed to group-level race differences. In light of this history, D. A. Newman et al suggest (a) retaining a group-level conceptualization of race/racial socialization and also (b) focusing on criterion-irrelevant variance in test scores that is attributable to race.     

Implementing fairness in racial-group assessment requires assessment of individuals

Replies to comments by R. J. Griffore and D. A. Newman et al on the author's original article on test validity and cultural bias in racial-group assessment. Helms notes that, given that within-group variance exceeds between-groups variance, racial groups are probably simulating a psychological construct that is more strongly related to individuals' test scores than to their respective racial group's mean test scores. Therefore, models of individual differences, such as her Helms individual-differences (HID) model, that remove construct-irrelevant racial variance, are needed to make the testing process fair at the level of individual African American, Latino/Latina American, and Native American test takers. Her HID model is intended to focus attention on identifying the factors responsible for the racial-group-level differences and, thereby, assist test users to look beyond presumed physical appearance (e.g., racial-group designations) for explanations of individuals' cognitive abilities, knowledge, or skills test scores.     

Cultural Mistrust,Ethnic Identity,Racial Identity,and Self‐Esteem Among Ethnically Diverse Black University Students

Cultural mistrust, ethnic identity, racial identity, and self‐esteem were examined among African (n = 26), African American (n = 110), and West Indian/Caribbean (n = 24) university students. African American students' scores were statistically different from those of African and West Indian/Caribbean students on cultural mistrust, racial identity, and ethnic identity measures. There were no statistically significant differences on self‐esteem among the 3 groups. Results did indicate that cultural mistrust, ethnic identity, and racial identity accounted for 37% of the variance in self‐esteem for African American students. Implications for practice and future research directions are discussed.     

Race, social class and ability patterns on the WISC-R

The national standardization sample of whites and blacks on the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—Revised (WISC-R) was the basis for a detailed analysis of the psychometric nature of racial and social class differences on the original 13 subscales of the WISC-R. The profiles of subtest scores of whites and blacks were compared directly and also after the racial groups were statistically equated on Full Scale IQ (FSIQ). Under the latter condition, the races differ only very slightly, although significantly, on some of the subtests, in ways generally contrary to popular expectations. The profile of white-black differences on the WISC-R subtests is markedly different, and negatively correlated with, the profiles of social class differences within each racial group, indicating that the pattern of racial differences is not explainable in terms of the difference in the average socio-economic status (SES) of blacks and whites. A Schmid-Leiman orthogonalized hierarchical factor analysis yields virtually identical factor structures and highly congruent factor loadings on the subtests for whites and blacks. Analysis of factor scores shows that by far the largest proportion of the variance between races is attributable to the general factor (g) common to all the subtests, whereas the group factors (verbal, performance and memory) contribute only minutely to the interracial variance. Hence the white-black differences on the diverse subtests of the WISC-R, and in the Full Scale IQ, are interpreted primarily as a difference in Spearman's g, rather than as differences in the more specific factors peculiar to particular content, knowledge, acquired skills or type of test. However, some slight but significant differences in patterns of ability also occur that are independent of g.     

Cross‐Cultural Integrity Testing as a Marker of Regional Corruption Rates

Despite the extensive research on integrity testing in personnel psychology, very little cross‐cultural evidence is currently available. The present study compares mean integrity test scores across 27 countries, based on data collected from 60,952 job applicants, and examines the relationship between these scores and a comparative index of country‐level corruption as a broad measure of cross‐cultural validity. G. S. Hofstede's cultural dimension indices are then used to explain these findings. The results indicate significant variance between cross‐cultural integrity test scores overall, and that this variance is significantly related to country levels of corruption (r=?.48), as well as Hofstede's power distance and collectivism dimensions, as hypothesized. The theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.     

An examination of culture bias in the wonderlic personnel test

Internal evidence of cultural bias, in terms of various types of item analysis, was sought in the Wonderlic Personnel Test results in large, representative samples of Whites and Blacks totaling some 1,500 subjects. Essentially, the lack of any appreciable Race × Items interaction and the high interracial similarity in rank order of item difficulties lead to the conclusion that the Wonderlic shows very little evidence of cultural bias with respect to the present samples which, however, differ appreciably in mean scores. The items which account for the most variance within each racial group are, by and large, the same items that show the largest interracial discrimination.     

Black Adolescent Girls: Do Gender Role and Racial Identity: Impact Their Self-Esteem?

This study was designed to explore Black adolescent girls' gender roles, racial identity, and self-esteem. These variables have not been examined together in a study of Black girls, yet studies of girls from other racial/cultural groups have demonstrated significant relationships. This type of exploration is important because Black girls do not experience the same declines in self-esteem as girls from other racial/cultural groups. Gender role orientation and racial identity have been put forth as possible explanations for Black girls' bolstered levels of self-esteem. Results indicated that Black girls with androgynous and masculine characteristics reported high levels of self-esteem. The results also indicated that Black girls with internally defined Black racial identity attitudes reported high levels of domain-specific self-esteem. In addition, androgyny was associated with high scores on internalization (Black racial identity).     

Racial identity and the MMPI in African American male college students

The relation of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) to the Racial Identity Attitude Scale--Black, Short Form (RIAS-B) was examined among 50 African American male college students in a reanalysis of unpublished MMPI data described in R. H. Dana (1993). This permitted study of relationships between MMPI scores and specific psychological variables hypothesized to produce cultural differences among African Americans. Results indicated RIAS-B scale scores functioned as predictors of MMPI scale scores. Similar research with the MMPI-2 incorporating larger samples that more adequately represent African American heterogeneity is needed. Methodological implications of these findings for MMPI-2 research with ethnic and racial groups are discussed, emphasizing the importance of research to depathologize African American racial and cultural identity.     

Profiles of Racial Socialization Among African American Parents: Correlates,Context, and Outcome

Self report and observational data on racial socialization practices in a sample of 218 African American parents of young children were used to determine whether or not parents could be characterized in terms of their pattern of racial socialization practices. Parents fell into four groups: silence about race, emphasis on cultural socialization, emphasis on cultural socialization and coping strategies, or a balanced approach. Silence about race was more common among parents of boys, whereas an emphasis on cultural socialization was more common among parents of girls. Silence about race was less common in neighborhoods with high levels of negative social climate, and a combination of cultural socialization with coping strategies for discrimination was more common in neighborhoods with high neighborhood potential for community involvement with children. The coping emphasis/cultural socialization approach was associated with significantly lower child problem behavior, although some gender differences were evident. A cultural socialization emphasis was associated with higher cognitive scores among girls, and a combination of cultural socialization, coping with discrimination, and promotion of mistrust was associated with higher cognitive scores among boys. Implications of this profile approach for the study of racial socialization practices in ethnic minority families are discussed.     

Age and cohort effects on personality factor scores across sexes and racial/ethnic groups

Substantial differences exist across ethnic groups and sexes in generational changes in status among groups residing in Hawaii. Despite these generational differences across groups, age differences in personality are remarkably consistent across sexes and racial/ethnic groups, and the few Sex x Age, Ethnicity x Age or Sex x Ethnicity x Age interactions account for little variance in scores. It is concluded that age/generational differences in personality factor scores in these populations result from age and not, to any major degree, from cohort effects.     

Cross-national differences in the assessment of psychopathy: do they reflect variations in raters' perceptions of symptoms?

Cross-national differences in the prevalence of psychopathy have been reported. This study examined whether rater effects could account for these differences. Psychopathy was assessed with the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R; R. D. Hare, 1991). Videotapes of 6 Scottish prisoners and 6 Canadian prisoners were rated by 10 Scottish and 10 Canadian raters. No significant main or interaction effects involving the nationality of raters were detected at the level of full scores or factor scores. Using a generalizability theory approach, it was demonstrated that the interrater reliability of total scores was good, that is, the proportion of variance in test scores attributable to raters was small. The interrater reliability of factor scores was lower, typically falling in the fair range. Overall, the results suggest that the reported cross-national differences are more likely to be in the expression of the disorder rather than in the eye of the beholder.     

Correlates of African American Men’s Sexual Schemas

Sexual schemas are cognitive representations of oneself as a sexual being and aid in the processing of sexually relevant information. We examined the relationship between sociosexuality (attitudes about casual sex), masculine ideology (attitudes toward traditional men and male roles), and cultural centrality (strength of identity with racial group) as significant psychosocial and sociocultural predictors in shaping young, heterosexual African American men??s sexual schemas. A community sample (n?=?133) of men in a southeastern city of the United States completed quantitative self-report measures examining their attitudes and behavior related to casual sex, beliefs about masculinity, racial and cultural identity, and self-views of various sexual aspects of themselves. Results indicated that masculine ideology and cultural centrality were both positively related to men??s sexual schemas. Cultural centrality explained 12?% of the variance in level of sexual schema, and had the strongest correlation of the predictor variables with sexual schema (r?=?.36). The need for more attention to the bidirectional relationships between masculinity, racial/cultural identity, and sexual schemas in prevention, intervention, and public health efforts for African American men is discussed.     

Racial/ethnic disparities in therapist effectiveness: a conceptualization and initial study of cultural competence

As a result of mental health disparities between White and racial/ethnic minority clients, researchers have argued that some therapists may be generally competent to provide effective services but lack cultural competence. This distinction assumes that client racial/ethnic background is a source of variability in therapist effectiveness. However, there have been no direct tests of the therapist as a source of health disparities. We provided an initial test of the distinction between general and cultural competence by examining client racial/ethnic background as a source of variability in therapist effectiveness. We analyzed cannabis use outcomes from a psychotherapy trial (N = 582) for adolescent cannabis abuse and dependence using Bayesian multilevel models for count outcomes. We first tested whether therapists differed in their effectiveness and then tested whether disparities in treatment outcomes varied across therapist caseloads. Results suggested that therapists differed in their effectiveness in general and that effectiveness varied according to client racial/ethnic background. Therapist effectiveness may depend partially on client racial/ethnic minority background, providing evidence that it is valid to distinguish between general and cultural competence.     

Speaking of fairness in testing

In an article based on her presentation to the 114th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, Janet Helms described a concept of test fairness. Helms's approach to fairness appears to be based on the premise that socialization consists of experiences received from one's environment, which are simply internalized as personal attributes. From an ecological perspective, this is incorrect, misleading, and oddly evocative of social-cognitive and psychodynamic notions. Individuals are not passive recipients of culture, and they do not necessarily simply reflect their experiences. Although Helms intended her model to apply to racial and cultural groups, it seems that she has overlooked the potential of applying her concept of fairness to another important level of social organization: the family. R. J. Griffore suggests that it is unfair to avoid using valid tests that are said to be unfair because of racially or culturally based construct-irrelevant variance if those tests can help individuals make decisions that lead to success outcomes. The use of race or culture as a variable that in any way jeopardizes the prediction of success for individuals or groups is unfair for all groups for whom the test is used.     

Race, culture, and psychotherapy: transference to minority therapists

We present observations on the use of racial and cultural stereotypes in psychoanalytic psychotherapy with patients from the majority culture and with those from minority backgrounds. Earlier work has centered on black/white patient dyads and has not taken other possible combinations into account. "Race" and "culture" have sometimes been used synonymously. Our clinical experience indicates that there is some overlap in the themes of transferences to us as members of different racial minorities. We note, however, that for the African-American therapist, projections are more often based on racial stereotypes, whereas for the Chinese-American therapist, projections are based more on cultural assumptions. When careful attention is paid to the manifestations of racial and cultural stereotyping, much can be learned about the patient's inner life, to the benefit of the analytic work.     

Dependability of Brazelton neonatal behavioral assessment cluster scales

The capacity of measures of neonatal behavior to differentiate individual neonates reliably across raters and dependably across the first days of life is a prerequisite to any attempt at predicting individual behavior, particularly developmental dysfunction. In a methodological program addressing this issue in the context of Generalizability Theory, we examined the variability of observed cluster scores using the Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS). The clusters were: Orientation, Autonomic Regulation, Motor Performance. Range of State, Regulation of State, and Reflex Performance. With two different repeat-measure designs and three samples, we estimated: the variance component due to true individual differences; variance components attributable to facets of observation—examiner, rater, occasion; and variance components attributable to their interactions.Results indicated that, for most dimensions of newborn behavior, there is a great deal of unpredictable variability from occasion to occasion within each individual and not much developmental change in performance over the first days of life. Also, while there are, in general, no systematic examiner or rater biases, except for the aversive reflex maneuvers, a relatively large amount of variance is attributable to specific judgments by a particular rater of a particular baby on a specific occasion. These results should be viewed in the context of relatively small true differences between individual neonates: that is, for the samples studied at least, only a small portion of the scale is used. Unless results are based on more than one examination, conclusions about differences among individuals on the NBAS should be taken with caution, as they are mitigated by a sizeable error of measurement.     

Bias and error in multiple-choice tests

A formula for estimating real scores on a multiple-choice test from a knowledge of raw scores is derived. This formula does not involve the assumption of a binomial distribution of real scores as does the Calandra formula. Other important formulas derived show: the variance of real scores in terms of the variance of raw scores and the correlation between real scores and raw scores. If the variance of real scores (or of raw scores also) is binomial, the regression of real scores on raw scores is linear; but, otherwise the regression is curvilinear. Yet the linear estimating formula is a close approximation to the curvilinear relationship. Factors affecting the regression of real scores on raw scores and the correlation coefficient are: (1) the number of choices per question; (2) the number of questions answered; (3) the ratio of the average group raw score to the variance of raw scores.     

Examiner error in curriculum-based measurement of oral reading

Although curriculum based measures of oral reading (CBM-R) have strong technical adequacy, there is still a reason to believe that student performance may be influenced by factors of the testing situation, such as errors examiners make in administering and scoring the test. This study examined the construct-irrelevant variance introduced by examiners using a cross-classified multilevel model. We sought to determine the extent of variance in student CBM-R scores attributable to examiners and, if present, the extent to which it was moderated by students' grade level and English learner (EL) status. Fit indices indicated that a cross-classified random effects model (CCREM) best fits the data with measures nested within students, students nested within schools, and examiners crossing schools. Intraclass correlations of the CCREM revealed that roughly 16% of the variance in student CBM-R scores was associated between examiners. The remaining variance was associated with the measurement level, 3.59%; between students, 75.23%; and between schools, 5.21%. Results were moderated by grade level but not by EL status. The discussion addresses the implications of this error for low-stakes and high-stakes decisions about students, teacher evaluation systems, and hypothesis testing in reading intervention research.     

Exploring the association between color-blind racial ideology and multicultural counseling competencies

The authors examined the association between color-blind racial ideology and self-reported multicultural counseling competencies in 130 applied psychology students and mental health workers. Results from 1 sample (n = 79) indicated that greater levels of color-blind racial ideology as measured by the Color-Blind Racial Attitudes Scale (Neville, Lilly, Duran, Lee, & Browne, 2000) were (1) related to lower self-reported multicultural counseling awareness and knowledge as measured by the Multicultural Counseling Knowledge and Awareness Scale (MCKAS; Ponterotto, Gretchen, Utsey, Rieger, & Austin, 2002) and (2) accounted for a significant amount of variance in MCKAS scores over and above that explained by self-reported multicultural training, social desirability, and participant race. Findings from another sample also provided empirical support for the link between higher color-blind racial ideology and lower multicultural case conceptualization ability (n = 51), after controlling for the influence of the number of multicultural course(s) taken. Implications of the findings and future directions are provided.     

Student Preferences in Divisional Studies and their Preferential Activities

Samples of preadolescents, adolescents, and young adults of middle-class backgrounds from Canadian and Asian-Indian populations were used to assess the hypothesis that with age, individuals reveal increasing differentiation in categories of personal characteristics, when evaluating themselves. The results of this cross-cultural study showed a linear increase in variance with age, in both cultural samples, and confirmed the findings of earlier investigations conducted exclusively with American-born subjects. Consistency of the findings of increasing differentiation in self-evaluations with age in the American, Canadian, and Asian samples suggests that such differentiation is a basic developmental factor in the organization of self-evaluations across cultures. In addition, it was found that, as compared with the Canadian sample, the Asian sample had significantly lower mean summation self-evaluation scores and lower mean variance scores at each age level. The implications of these cultural differences are discussed.