Gendered Division of Childrearing: Ideals,Realities, and the Relationship to Parental Well-Being

Recent cultural expectations about fathers' involvement in childrearing may have changed more rapidly than fathers' behaviors, creating discrepancies between parenting ideals and realities that can generate tensions in family life. In this study, a 1999 national probability sample of 234 married parents, both mothers and fathers expressed strongly egalitarian ideals that fathers should be equally involved in child-rearing across five nurturant domains—discipline, emotional support, play, monitoring, and care-giving—as well as in financial support. In contrast, mothers perceived much less father involvement in actual parenting than fathers perceived—especially in disciplining and providing emotional support for their children. Ideal–actual discrepancies were related to well-being: if fathers were seen as less than ideally involved in nurturant parenting, parents reported more stress and fathers who perceived greater than ideal father involvement in financial support were more likely to say the division of household labor was unfair to the mother. Ideal–actual gaps differed for mothers and fathers and were sometimes differentially related to well-being. For example, less than ideal father involvement in disciplining children was associated with mothers' higher stress levels, and the discrepancy in expectations about father involvement in play and monitoring children was correlated with mothers' increased feelings of unfairness in the household division of labor. On the other hand, fathers who felt an ideal–actual gap in disciplining children almost always felt overly involved in discipline and were less likely to report that the division of labor in the household was unfair to their spouses.     

Correlates of Maternal and Paternal Adjustment to Chronic Childhood Disease

This study investigated the correlates of psychosocial adjustment in mothers and fathers of children with chronic disease. Participants were 20 mothers and 15 fathers of children with cystic fibrosis, 11 mothers and 9 fathers of children with muscular dystrophy, 18 mothers and 9 fathers of children with asthma, 13 mothers and 8 fathers of children with Type 1 diabetes and 19 mothers and 11 fathers of healthy children. Questionnaires relating to the variables of interest were used. Poorer levels of adjustment were associated with lower levels of social support and family cohesion for mothers and coping by understanding the child’s medical situation, more family life events and lower family cohesion for fathers. These findings suggest that the correlates associated with maternal and paternal psychological adjustment to chronic childhood disease differ. These differences are important to consider when providing care to children with chronic disease and their families.     

Parent-infant interaction: a growth model approach

The aim of this study is to compare the interaction of fathers and mothers with their 10–12 months old infants (n = 97; parental sensitivity and mood, and infant mood) during five structured contiguous play segments, and to examine the utility of individual growth modeling. Conventional comparison of means across play-segments showed that parents were equally responsive, but mothers were happier than fathers, and infants were equally happy during interaction with both parents. Sensitivity and mood were more strongly related for mothers than for fathers. Uni- and multivariate growth models revealed fine-grained patterns not seen in conventional analysis: (a) parental and infant mood decreased across play more for mothers than for fathers, (b) parental sensitivity in one play-segment predicted parental mood and infant mood in the next segment, (c) change in infants’ mood was related to change in sensitivity in mothers, and to change in mood in fathers, and (d) mothers’ sensitive interaction with the infant was predicted by family socio-demographic background.     

The Influence of Community Violence on the Functioning of Women Experiencing Domestic Violence

The relationships among women’s experiences of domestic violence, community violence, and their mental health functioning were explored (N = 94). Social contagion theory was used to argue for the link between community violence and family violence. Results revealed that women’s experiences of domestic violence were not related to community violence. Furthermore, women’s mental health functioning was solely associated with their experiences of domestic violence, not with community violence. Results are discussed in terms of an ecological model of domestic violence and future directions for exploring linkages between neighborhood characteristics and individual experiences.     

Family-Friendly Policies,Supervisor Support,Work–Family Conflict,Family–Work Conflict,and Satisfaction: A Test of a Conceptual Model

The present study tests a model of antecedents (i.e., the use of family-friendly policies, supervisor support, number of hours worked, having childcare responsibility) and consequences (i.e., job and family satisfaction) of work–family conflict and family–work conflict. As hypothesized, we found that the use of family-friendly policies, hours worked per week, and supervisor support were predictive of work–family conflict. In addition, as predicted, childcare responsibility and supervisor support were found to be related to family–work conflict. Work–family conflict was found to be related to both job and family satisfaction. Our research extends previous research in a number of ways. We believe that a particular strength of our study is it incorporated data gathered at different points in time and from more than one source.     

Mothers', fathers' and children's perceptions of parents' expectations about children's family obligations in nine countries

Children's family obligations involve assistance and respect that children are expected to provide to immediate and extended family members and reflect beliefs related to family life that may differ across cultural groups. Mothers, fathers and children (N = 1432 families) in 13 cultural groups in 9 countries (China, Colombia, Italy, Jordan, Kenya, Philippines, Sweden, Thailand and United States) reported on their expectations regarding children's family obligations and parenting attitudes and behaviours. Within families, mothers and fathers had more concordant expectations regarding children's family obligations than did parents and children. Parenting behaviours that were warmer, less neglectful and more controlling as well as parenting attitudes that were more authoritarian were related to higher expectations regarding children's family obligations between families within cultures as well as between cultures. These international findings advance understanding of children's family obligations by contextualising them both within families and across a number of diverse cultural groups in 9 countries.     

The Impact of Family-Friendly Practices on Work–Family Balance in Spain

Not being able to combine work with family properly is negatively related to employees’ quality of life. Some firms are aware of this reality and provide their employees family-friendly practices, a set of practices designed to enable employees a work–family balance. Family-friendly practices are classified in three subsets: family support practices, flexible arrangement practices, and parental leave practices. Then, this paper analyzes the impact of different subsets of family-friendly practices on work–family balance for women and men subsamples, as well as to disentangle the mechanisms through with such effects occur. Based on a representative sample of 8,061 Spanish workers and using the Baron and Kenny procedure to test for mediation, the results show that the three subsets of family-friendly practices increase work–family balance for both genders, although some of them have different effects for women and men. In line with societal gender role expectation, family support practices better accommodate men’s need, increasing work–family balance almost for them, and parental leave practices women’s need, increasing work–family balance more for them. However, flexible arrangement practices increase work–family balance equally for both genders. Moreover, in all cases, the effect of family-friendly practices on work–family balance goes beyond the effect of time outside work and time at work, then this partial mediation indicates that time is an important mechanism in achieving work–family balance. In sum, offering employees family-friendly practices is a good starting point in order to increase people’s quality of life by helping them achieve work–family balance.     

Emotional Support from Parents and In-Laws: the Roles of Gender and Contact

After the birth of a child, new mothers and fathers commonly have a substantial amount of contact with their parents and in-laws. However, this contact may not always result in emotional support. We tested if contact, rather than geographical distance, influenced emotional support received from parents and in-laws and whether there were gender differences in these associations. Online questionnaire data were collected in 2008 from a community sample of U.S. first-time mothers (n?=?93) and fathers (n?=?93) who were in a heterosexual relationship and living together. Results indicated that for new mothers, greater contact with own parents and in-laws was related to receiving more emotional support. However, for mothers, greater contact with parents also was related to less emotional support from in-laws. For new fathers, contact was not related to emotional support from either parents or in-laws. These findings suggest that receiving support as a result of contact with family members may be gendered, particularly for new mothers’ and fathers’ relationships with their in-laws. The current study highlights the importance of reducing stigmas about men and their emotional needs and of encouraging new fathers to seek and receive support from family during the transition to parenthood.     

Father and mother contributions to family functioning when the child has a mental delay

Less is known about the father's than the mother's role in family adaptation to children with disabilities. The purpose of this study was to examine relationships of both father and mother use of coping strategies and perceptions of the child with measures of family functioning style. Subjects were 26 families of 30-month-old children with a mental delay and a comparison group of 26 families of same-aged children with no delay. Functioning style for study families showed a balance of cohesion and adaptability; comparison families were more chaotically flexible on the adaptability scale. Mothers and fathers agreed on family functioning style. Study parents made the greatest use of external coping strategies, while in both groups mothers used more external and fathers more internal coping strategies. Relationships between coping and family functioning varied by parent and by group. Results suggest the need for further exploration of the separate needs of fathers and mothers in maintaining balanced family functioning.     

Extraversion predicts individual differences in women’s face preferences

Extraversion is positively associated with various indices of women’s mate quality (e.g., facial symmetry and attractiveness). Since such indices are thought to predict variation in women’s preferences for masculine men, we investigated the relationships between each of the ‘Big 5’ personality factors and women’s preferences for facial masculinity. Extraversion, but not the other four personality factors, was positively correlated with women’s preferences for masculinity in men’s, but not women’s, faces. Additionally, extraversion mediated the positive relationship between women’s self-rated attractiveness and their preferences for masculinity in men’s faces, suggesting that extraversion may play a role in condition-dependent mate preferences. Unexpectedly, openness to experience was associated with women’s preferences for femininity in faces of both sexes and this association was independent of that between extraversion and women’s preferences for masculine men. This is the first study that we know of to implicate personality traits in individual differences in women’s preferences for masculine men.     

Individual and Dyadic Coping and Fear of Progression in Mothers and Fathers of Children with Hematologic Cancer

This study investigated the association of individual and dyadic coping strategies with fear of progression (FoP) in mothers and fathers of children with hematologic cancer. Parental couples (N = 44) whose children had been diagnosed with hematologic cancer were recruited at a university hospital and a rehabilitation clinic in Germany between 03/2017 and 08/2017. Data included parents' self-report on FoP (Fear of Progression Questionnaire—parent version, FoP-Q-SF/PR), individual coping (Coping Health Inventory for Parents, CHIP-D), and dyadic coping (Dyadic Coping Inventory, DCI). Statistical analyses were carried out for mothers and fathers individually as well as for parental couples using dyadic data analyses (e.g., actor-partner interdependence model, APIM). Individual and dyadic coping strategies were significantly correlated with FoP in mothers, but not in fathers. Fathers' evaluation of the couple's dyadic coping significantly predicted mothers' FoP. The more frequent use of familial integration (CHIP-D FAM) and maintaining social support (CHIP-D SUP) as well as a better evaluation of their partners' dyadic coping was significantly associated with lower FoP in mothers. Differences in individual and dyadic coping in parental couples were not associated with FoP. Individual and dyadic coping strategies should be addressed in the psychosocial care of mothers and fathers of children with hematologic cancer. Study results support the benefits of involving fathers in psychosocial interventions, for example, in couple-based interventions that acknowledge interpersonal effects of coping on FoP. Future research should further explore coping strategies applied by fathers of children with hematologic cancer for the regulation of FoP.     

The Stability of Self-Reported Physical Symptoms in African American Mothers and Their Impact on Children

Self-reported physical symptoms are an important marker of health and well-being, particularly among African American women. The stability of African American women’s physical symptoms or the impact of their symptoms on their children, however, has yet to be examined. This longitudinal study examined the stability of maternal self-reported physical symptoms, as well as their role in shaping child-reported physical symptoms, among 137 low-income African American families. Findings revealed that mothers’ self-reported physical symptoms were stable over 2.5 years. Mothers who reported higher levels of physical symptoms were more likely to have children who concurrently reported higher levels of symptoms. Physical symptoms reported by mothers at the first assessment also predicted child-reported physical symptoms 2.5 years later, but only for boys. Physical symptoms appear to be an important, yet understudied, symptom domain that may have significant implications for the health and well-being of African American families.     

Getting Fathers Involved in Child-Related Therapy

Fathers are involved in treatment for child and family problems to a far lesser extent than are mothers. This article reviews the level of fathers’ inclusion in therapy, delineates possible barriers to fathers’ participation in child-related treatment, and discusses factors associated with fathers’ involvement in therapy. Empirically and clinically informed strategies to engage fathers in treatment are offered to help therapists increase fathers’ participation in the therapeutic process. Finally, future directions for clinically informed research in this area are discussed.     

FATHER PLAY: IS IT SPECIAL?

Both mothers and fathers play with their children, but research on parent–child play interactions is conducted with mothers three times more often than it is with fathers. The articles in this special issue address this gap by focusing on the nature and quality of father–child play, across cultural contexts, and considering whether father play offers something unique and special for early human development, in infancy or early childhood. The studies show that fathers can be just as developmentally supportive as are mothers in terms of being playful and engaged with their children in ways that are related to greater child socioemotional competence, emotion regulation, and vocabulary, and to less aggression, anxiety, and negativity. We encourage future research to examine the cultural influences, family system dynamics, and specificity of timing and types of father–child play in relation to children's developmental competence.     

Family and work predictors of parenting role stress among two‐earner families of children with disabilities

Family resources (i.e. household income and spouse support), parenting challenges (i.e. number of children, difficulty finding reliable child care, and child characteristics), work rewards (i.e. work interest) and work demands (i.e. hours and work overload) were tested as predictors of parenting role stress among mothers and fathers in two‐earner families of five‐year old children with disabilities. The two‐level hierarchical model was adapted to assess mothers and fathers as nested within married couples. Both common and unique predictors of maternal and paternal parenting role stress were found. Having fewer children in the family predicted less stress for both parents. Household income and an interaction between child behaviour problems and work interest were significant predictors of maternal parenting role stress. In contrast, greater difficulty in finding reliable child care predicted higher levels of parenting role stress for fathers but not mothers. The policy and research implications of these findings are discussed. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Is Family Expressiveness as Reported by Mothers and Fathers Related to Children’s Social Anxiety Symptoms?

We examined family expressiveness as reported by mothers and fathers with respect to children’s report of social anxiety symptoms. Participants consisted of a clinical sample of 178 youth (8–16 years) and their parents. The sample was largely homogenous (163 Caucasians, 6 African American, 4 Hispanic, 5 Asian/Native American; 118 boys, 60 girls), and for analytic purposes, divided into two age groups: young children between 8 and 10 years and preadolescents and adolescents between 11 and 16 years. Youth completed the Social Anxiety subscale of the Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children and parents completed the Expressiveness subscale of the Family Environment Scale. The Expressiveness subscale measures the extent to which family members openly and directly express their emotions. We hypothesized that low levels of family expressiveness, as reported by mothers and fathers, would be associated with heightened symptoms of social anxiety for both age groups of the youth. Contrary to predictions, no significant associations were observed between young children’s social anxiety and expressiveness. For older children, however, maternal reports of family expressiveness were negatively related to social anxiety symptoms (as predicted) whereas paternal reports of family expressiveness were positively related to youth’s social anxiety symptoms (counter to predictions). This later finding suggests that the more expressive the father perceived the family to be, the higher the symptoms of social anxiety reported by the older youth. Findings are discussed in terms of differential perceptions of family expressiveness and socialization by mothers and fathers and gender role stereotypes.     

家庭氛围、子女生活满意度与心理健康代际传递的关系：亲子性别和子女年龄的差异

为探讨家庭环境（家庭氛围）、认知过程（生活满意度）和个人因素（亲子性别和子女年龄）对心理健康代际传递的影响,对591户家庭亲子被试进行调查。结果显示：（1）父母心理健康均正向预测子女心理健康,家庭氛围和子女生活满意度在其中起了重要中介作用;（2）较之于父亲,母亲心理健康对家庭氛围的预测效应更显著,母亲能以家庭氛围和生活满意度为链式多重中介预测子女心理健康,父亲心理健康仅以生活满意度为中介预测子女心理健康;（3）母亲心理健康仅能直接预测女儿的生活满意度和心理健康,父子间代际传递效应高于父女,以及母亲对子女的影响效应随子女年龄增长而提高,父亲的影响效应却在下降。研究结果有助于揭示心理健康代际传递的作用机制,且可丰富心理健康领域的研究。     

Paternal Involvement with School-aged Children in Brazilian Families: Association with Childhood Competence

Thirty-eight middle- to lower-income Brazilian fathers in two-parent families provided estimates of different dimensions of their involvement with their school-aged children, assessed children’s social competence, and rated their beliefs on family roles. Analyses showed that fathers and mothers spent similar amounts of time in different activities with children, but did differ in didactic interactions, their responsibility for, and actually disciplining children. There were no significant differences in participation due to gender of child or income. Fathers’ ideological beliefs about gender roles were positively related to involvement in disciplining children and inversely related to engagement in social activities with children. Fathers’ involvement in disciplining children was negatively associated with childhood social competence after controlling for mothers’ contribution.     

Accuracy of Informants: Do Parents Think That Mother Knows Best?

A total of 200 mothers and fathers provided their opinions as to the accuracy of mothers, fathers, teachers, children's peers, and children themselves as informants of children's emotional/behavioral problems. The results showed that mothers and fathers had very similar patterns of perceptions of accuracy, although fathers' ratings showed less differentiation between informants than did mothers' ratings. Patterns were very similar for reports on children and adolescents. Overall, mothers were perceived to be more accurate in reporting internalizing problems; mothers and teachers (and fathers to a lesser extent) were perceived to be more accurate in reporting externalizing problems; mothers, fathers, and teachers were seen as more accurate in reporting children's adaptive behaviors, and mothers, fathers, and children were seen as more accurate in reporting family problems. The results are discussed in the context of multiple informants of children's and adolescents' emotional/behavioral problems.     

The effects of early relational antecedents and other factors on the parental sensitivity of mothers and fathers

This study examines the effect of early relational antecedents (ERA, i.e. the quality of parenting parents recalled receiving as children), parenting stress, marital stress, socio‐economic factors and children's characteristics (gender and disability condition) on the parental sensitivity of mothers and fathers. The sample consisted of 116 mothers and 84 fathers of 117 eighteen month old children drawn from a larger longitudinal study on the adaptation of parents to a child with a disability. Thirty‐four children were diagnosed with Down syndrome (DS), 51 with a cleft lip and/or palate (CLP), and 32 were non‐disabled children. Multiple regression analyses reveal that mothers' sensitivity is best predicted by her level of education and family income, whereas fathers' sensitivity is best predicted by their ERA, marital stress, family income and the child's disability condition. Mothers with more education and a greater family income displayed a greater sensitivity to their children, as did fathers who perceive less marital stress, those with a greater family income and those who perceived their parents as less controlling. Also, fathers of children with DS displayed less sensitivity for their children than fathers of children with CLP or fathers of non‐disabled children. These results concord with many studies about the importance of socio‐economic factors, ERA, marital stress, parent's gender and children's factors in the understanding of parental sensitivity. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.