认知方和学习方式对运算性程序知识学习迁移的影响

探讨认知广度和学习方式两个因素对运算性程序知识学习迁移的影响。结果表明：（1）场独立性的学习在样例学习和试干学习中的运算性程序知识的迁移成绩均明显优于场依存性的学习;（2）样例学习比试干学习有着更高的迁移效应;（3）样例学习和试干学习在运算性程序知识的迁移中有着不同的特点和作用。     

“解释法”样例对小学生学习新运算规则的促进

为证实“解释法”样例设计的促进作用,实验考察了4年级小学生学习“解释”样例与普通样例、“解释”样例和“解释-标记”与普通样例的迁移效果。结果表明：（1）用“解释”样例学习分数加减运算规则的近迁移成绩明显优于普通样例,但远迁移成绩无显著差异;（2）用“解释-标记”样例学习分数乘除法运算规则的远迁移成绩明显优于“解释”样例和普通样例,但近迁移成绩差异不显著,学习“解释”样例的远迁移效果均明显优于普通样例;（3）学习“解释法”设计的比例运算样例,其远、近迁移成绩均明显优于普通样例的迁移成绩,并受被试先备知识的影响。     

含有新算符的代数运算规则学习的有效样例设计

为了探索含有新算符的代数运算规则学习的有效样例设计方式,分别采用“转换标记法”和“解释法”设计“指-对数转换”运算和对数运算的样例,考察了初中三年级学生代数运算规则样例学习的迁移效果。结果显示：(1)采用“转换标记法”设计的样例可以明显提高“指-对数转换”规则样例学习的迁移效果;(2)采用“解释法”设计的运算样例,能够明显促进“对数运算规则”的样例学习迁移效果,并与被试的基础知识有关。     

先前知识和样例设计对学习分数乘法规则的影响

研究通过3个实验,以6年级学生为被试,考察了先前知识在分数乘法规则单、双内容样例学习中的作用以及“标记法”、“标记+注释法”样例设计方法对低先前知识学生学习双内容样例的促进效果。结果发现：（1）高先前知识学生学习两种样例的迁移成绩无显著差异,且均好于低先前知识学生的成绩;（2）低先前知识学生学习单内容样例的迁移成绩明显优于双内容样例;（3）与学习普通样例相比,低先前知识学生学习“标记法”双内容样例的后测成绩无显著差异,但学习“标记+注释法”设计的样例的成绩明显更好。结果表明,学生单、双内容样例的学习效果受其先前知识水平的影响;低先前知识学生未能从“标记法”设计的双内容样例中获益,但学习“标记+注释法”设计的样例效果更佳。     

样例和问题的联结方式对迁移作用的实验研究

研究了样例和问题的联结方式对学习迁移的影响。实验 1探讨了渐减提示法对学习迁移的作用 ;实验 2进一步检验了渐减提示法对诱发学习者进行自我解释的作用 ;实验 3探讨了“渐减提示 +子目标”这种联结样例和问题的方式对迁移的效果。进行重复测量设计的方差分析 ,实验结果表明 :渐减提示法是动态的联结样例和问题解决的有效形式 ,符合认知技能获得的四阶段模型和建构主义学习观的基本要求 ;渐减提示法有助于促进学习者对样例问题进行高质量的自我解释和产生心理预期 ;用“渐减提示 +子目标引导”来联结样例和问题有助于减轻认知负荷 ,有助于产生高质量的自我解释 ,对原理图式的获得有着重要作用     

样例影响运算性程序知识学习迁移的研究

１问题提出现代认知心理学家Ｊ．Ｒ．Ａｎｄｅｒｓｏｎ等人提出的相同要素迁移理论,被认为是当前程序性知识学习迁移研究领域中最具代表性的理论观点。他们认为迁移的本质是以产生式（“条件──动作”对）为基本单元,通过知识编辑机制来实现的。陈述性知识（它以样例等其它形式呈现出来）可以通过弱方法获取,当这些弱方法问题解决法以某种解释形式作用于陈述性知识时,产生的问题解决行为是缓慢的,且容易犯错;既然所有的行为（认知的与物理的）都在程序式记忆的控制之下,那么技能行为就需要将这些速度缓慢的解释程序转变为特定领域的…     

样例数量对内隐序列学习的影响

本研究采用序列学习范式,探讨了样例数量对内隐序列学习的影响,以揭示意识在学习中的作用以及内隐学习获得的知识表征。研究发现,在内隐序列学习中：（1）被试既可以记忆具体的样例知识也可以抽取抽象的规则知识;（2）样例数量影响被试对样例和规则知识的获得,在样例较少时被试可以获得更多的样例和规则知识;（3）样例数量影响被试对意识知识的获得,在本研究中仅当样例数为4时被试获得了有关样例和规则的意识知识。     

竞争情境、认知风格对学生运算性程序知识学习迁移的影响

研究竞争情境对不同性别、认知风格学生运算性程序知识学习迁移的影响。结果发现：1对于不同类型的迁移题,竞争对不同认知风格学生的学习迁移有不同的影响。其表现为：对于同型题,场独立倾向学生在竞争情境下的迁移成绩要显著高于非竞争情境,场依存倾向学生在竞争情境下的学习成绩明显低于非竞争情境。对于近迁移和远迁移题,场独立和场依存倾向学生迁移成绩差异不显著;2对于不同类型的迁移题,竞争对不同性别学生的学习迁移具有不同影响。其表现为：对于远迁移题,在非竞争情境下,男生和女生的迁移成绩差异不显著;在竞争情境下,男生和女生的迁移成绩差异显著,男生的成绩要明显优于女生;对于同型题和近迁移题,男生和女生的迁移成绩差异不显著。     

小学生"去括号"运算规则的样例学习

为了考察小学生样例学习能力的发展和完整与不完整样例以及样例分类作业对样例学习效果的影响,作者采用完整和不完整样例以及"不完整样例-分类"三种学习作业,对270名3-5年级小学生学习"去括号"运算规则的效果进行了实验研究.结果表明:小学生"去括号"运算规则样例学习的能力随年级的增长而提高;样例分类作业对小学生学习"去括号"运算规则具有促进作用;不同类型的样例对学习不同难度的"去括号"运算规则的学习效果不同.     

定势对程序性知识学习迁移的影响

以较为复杂的课堂学习材料为对象,研究定势对程序性知识学习迁移的影响。结果表明:1.程序性知识的学习迁移中有定势负效应;重视样例的条件结构,构建起条件原型的学习准备状态,将有助于知识迁移;2.具备条件认知学习状态的被试,不仅顺利完成表面形式的迁移,而且在内在结构的迁移中,能突破表面形式的干扰,表现出较好的内在结构迁移成绩;3.结构类比要比仅仅进行特征类比产生更大的迁移效果。     

Generalization of action knowledge following observational learning

Both observational and physical practices support the acquisition of motor skill knowledge in the form of spatiotemporal coordination patterns. The current experiment examined the extent that observation and physical practice can support the transfer of spatiotemporal knowledge and amplitude knowledge associated with motor skills. Evidence from a multijoint limb task revealed that knowledge about spatiotemporal patterns (relative phase) acquired by observers and models can be generalized exceptionally well within the trained arm (right) and across to the untrained arm (left). Transfer of relative phase occurred even when untrained combinations of joint amplitudes were required. This indicates that observation and physical practice both lead to the development of an effector-independent representation of the spatiotemporal knowledge in this task. Both observers and models showed some transfer of the relative amplitude knowledge, with observers demonstrating superior transfer for both a trained and untrained-arm transfer test, while the models were limited to positive transfer on an untrained-arm transfer test. The representation of movement amplitude knowledge is effector-independent in this task, but the use of that knowledge is constrained by the specific practice context and the linkage between the elbow and wrist.     

Analogical transfer and expertise in legal reasoning

Analogical transfer and its relation to expertise is examined in a legal context. Three experiments were conducted comparing the performance of novices (introductory tax students) and of experts (experienced tax practitioners from multinational public accounting firms) on tasks involving the application of tax laws. In Experiment 1 subjects completed a target problem after reading a decided case that was either analogous or not analogous to a target problem. A limited amount of transfer was observed, with no differential rate of transfer across experience levels. In Experiments 2 and 3 attempts were made to facilitate transfer of knowledge by inducing transfer-appropriate processing of the source analog and by providing multiple source analogs. The results of both experiments indicate an interaction between treatment and expertise. Unexpectedly, the facilitating treatments reduced the transfer of knowledge for experts while increasing the transfer for novices. Subsequent analysis of the responses of the expert subjects indicates that for the more experienced expert subjects a highly proceduralized rule interfered with the knowledge transfer when that rule was made salient by the facilitating treatments. The less experienced expert subjects behaved in a manner consistent with the hypotheses. This poor performance of the more experienced experts results from the inflexibility in expert problem solving due to the proceduralization of information processing. Frensch and Sternberg (1989) demonstrate that this type of inflexibility is one of the costs of expertise and results from the development of a large and highly complex knowledge base containing numerous well developed strategies.     

The Five‐factor Model of Personality and Knowledge Transfer in the United Arab Emirates

Knowledge transfer has emerged as an important criterion in organizations for achieving a sustainable competitive advantage. While research has examined contextual determinants of knowledge transfer, very little research has considered the role of individual differences. In the present study, we addressed this issue by testing the relationship between the five‐factor model of personality and supervisory ratings of knowledge transfer in a sample of employees from the United Arab Emirates (N = 294). Our findings indicated that the extraversion (r = .22), conscientiousness (r = .18), and openness (r = .14) were significant predictors of knowledge transfer. Implications for knowledge management practices are discussed.     

Is more similar,better? Interacting effect of the cognitive‐style congruency and tacitness of knowledge on knowledge transfer in the mentor–protégé dyad

This study explored the effects of cognitive‐style congruency on knowledge transfer in the mentor–protégé dyadic relationship and the moderating effect of tacitness of knowledge in this relationship. Using data from 148 sales personnel dyads, we found that the more congruent the cognitive style between a mentor and a protégé, the more effective the knowledge transfer between them. Moreover, the tacitness of knowledge moderated this association as expected. When the knowledge to be transferred was organized, systematic, and clear, this positive relationship was weakened. This relationship was particularly strong when the knowledge to be transferred was tacit, ambiguous, and unclear.     

Training for the production of novel timing movements: Contextual considerations

Summary The present study represented an attempt to determine the extent to which transfer performance on a novel timing task is influenced by contextual similarity (i.e., similar instructions, task requirements, etc.) between training and transfer phases of performance. All subjects were given trials on a task which involved a linear ballistic arm movement. The length of the movement was defined as the distance between a start button and a hinged target, which was knocked over by the subject at the end of the response. During training subjects attempted to produce their movements in a time of 550 ms and were given knowledge of results regarding timing error after each trial. During transfer trials a 300 ms movement time was attempted and no knowledge of results was given. Context was defined by the number of different movement distances performed during training and transfer. Half of the subjects received training trials with a single distance (constant context) while the other half received an equal number of trials with each of three distances (varied context). During the transfer stage of the experiment, subjects either performed in the same movement distance context experienced during training (i.e., constant to constant; varied to varied) or in the opposite context (i.e., constant to varied; varied to constant). The results of the transfer analysis suggested that similariy of context between training and transfer phases of performance was not crucial to the accurate production of a novel closed-timing movement. Implications of the present results for recent theories of memory development are discussed.     

Knowledge Transfer in Organizations: Learning from the Experience of Others

In the introduction to this special issue of Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes on the psychological foundations of knowledge transfer in organizations, we argue that knowledge transfer is becoming increasingly important in organizations. Organizations that are able to transfer knowledge effectively from one unit to another are more productive and more likely to survive than those that are less adept at knowledge transfer. Although organizations are able to realize remarkable increases in performance through knowledge transfer, successful knowledge transfer is difficult to achieve. The articles in this special issue identify factors affecting knowledge transfer in organizations. These articles provide empirical evidence about effective mechanisms for transferring knowledge as well as about barriers to and facilitators of knowledge transfer. By focusing on the psychological processes that underlie knowledge transfer within a unit and between units within a firm, this special issue complements work in cognitive psychology on knowledge transfer at the individual level of analysis as well as work in strategy and organizational theory on knowledge transfer at the firm or industry levels of analysis. This special issue opens up the “black box” of knowledge transfer in organizations by providing new theory and empirical evidence on the psychological processes that are the foundations for knowledge transfer in organizations.     

Being perceived as a knowledge sender or knowledge receiver: A multistudy investigation of the effect of age on knowledge transfer

As a result of demographic changes, workforces are becoming older and more age diverse. While interactions between workers from different age groups can provide opportunities for mutual learning through bidirectional knowledge transfer, research has yet to investigate how age influences knowledge transfer between age‐diverse colleagues. Building on the organizational theory of age effects, we conducted two studies to examine how age influenced the roles assigned to individuals in knowledge transfer processes, that is, whether they were perceived as knowledge senders or knowledge recipients. In Study 1, we used an experimental vignette design with 450 employees to assess how age affected perceived ability and motivation to share and receive knowledge. Further, we tested the extent to which trustworthiness moderated these relationships. In Study 2, we extended these findings using a dyadic research design with data from 53 age‐diverse knowledge transfer dyads. We examined through which mechanisms the age of one's colleague affected one's knowledge transfer behaviour. We found that the age of one's colleague had a positive effect on one's knowledge receiving behaviour and a negative effect on one's knowledge sharing behaviour. Further, perceived ability to receive knowledge and perceived motivation to share knowledge mediated these effects.     

Leveraging member expertise to improve knowledge transfer and demonstrability in groups

Group success is dependent on both the knowledge of group members and the extent to which the group can access this knowledge. This research focuses on promoting effective knowledge transfer in group members by facilitating their use of extant knowledge when solving novel problems and examines how this affects subsequent discussion, decision making, and performance. Participants (N = 540) answered a series of estimation items individually or in a group. Sessions were recorded to provide insight into the group interactions. Facilitating knowledge transfer promoted (a) a more effective dialogue in which members were able to share more of their knowledge and discuss member expertise, (b) groups giving greater weight to better member preferences in their decision-making process, and (c) improved group performance relative to both average comparison individuals and to groups operating without this intervention. The effectiveness of promoting knowledge transfer in a group context relative to an individual context is discussed and group superiority is related to the concept of task demonstrability.     

Comparing the effects of generating questions,testing, and restudying on students' long-term recall in university learning

We compared the long-term effects of generating questions by learners with answering questions (i.e., testing) and restudying in the context of a university lecture. In contrast to previous studies, students were not prepared for the learning strategies, learning content was experimentally controlled, and effects on factual and transfer knowledge were examined. Students' overall recall performance after one week profited from generating questions and testing but not from restudying. When analyzing the effects on both knowledge types separately, traditional analyses revealed that only factual knowledge appeared to benefit from testing. However, additional Bayesian analyses suggested that generating questions and testing similarly benefit factual and transfer knowledge compared with restudying. The generation of questions thus seems to be another powerful learning strategy, yielding similar effects as testing on long-term retention of coherent learning content in educational contexts, and these effects emerge for factual and transfer knowledge.     

Knowledge structures and the acquisition of a complex skill

The purpose of this study was to examine the viability of knowledge structures as an operationalization of learning in the context of a task that required a high degree of skill. Over the course of 3 days, 86 men participated in 9 training sessions and learned a complex video game. At the end of acquisition, participants' knowledge structures were assessed. After a 4-day nonpractice interval, trainees completed tests of skill retention and skill transfer. Findings indicated that the similarity of trainees' knowledge structures to an expert structure was correlated with skill acquisition and was predictive of skill retention and skill transfer. However, the magnitude of these effects was dependent on the method used to derive the expert referent structure. Moreover, knowledge structures mediated the relationship between general cognitive ability and skill-based performance.