Training in musical rhythm and field dependence of children.

The present experiment investigated the effects of musical rhythm training on field dependence in children. An experimental group of 12 Ss showed significant improvement on the Children's Embedded-figures Test and the Rod-and-frame Test after training, while a matched control group did not improve. Pretest scores on the children's Embedded-figures Test and the Rod-and-frame Test were not correlated.     

Measurement of field-independence-dependence in children: a methodological note.

Three techniques for assessment of field-independence-dependence were found feasible and appropriate for use with primary grade children in a school setting. Ss were readily able to understand directions and to manage the apparatus. They appeared interested and highly motivated to perform well. Findings must be interpreted cautiously, however. Small size of samples, especially in the test-retest reliability analyses, makes generalizability limited. Importantly, too, strength of relationship between the three measures varied; r between the two rod-and-frame techniques was statistically significant, but only the Nickel apparatus related significantly to the Children's Embedded-figures Test. Questions must be raised as to the comparability of techniques in assessment of field-independence-dependence, at least for primary grade children. Finally, these Ss were from middle socioeconomic backgrounds and were pupils in a stable and achievement-oriented school. Feasibility of using the techniques with children from markedly different social and economic backgrounds is uncertain.     

Age,gender, race,socioeconomic status,and birth cohort differences on the children's depression inventory: a meta-analysis

A within-scale meta-analysis was performed on 310 samples of children (ages 8-16; N = 61,424) responding to the Children's Depression Inventory (CDI). Girls' depression scores stayed steady from ages 8 to 11 and then increased between ages 12 and 16. Boys' CDI scores were stable from ages 8 to 16 except for a high CDI score at age 12. Girls' scores were slightly lower than boys' during childhood, but girls scored higher beginning at age 13. There were no socioeconomic status effects and no differences between White and Black samples. However, Hispanic samples scored significantly higher on the CDI. Analyses for birth cohort showed a slight decrease in boys' CDI scores over time and no change for girls. Longitudinal studies demonstrated a marked testing effect.     

Assessment of children's Type A behavior: relationship with negative behavioral characteristics and children and teacher demographic characteristics

Thirty-two teachers rated Type A behavior, using Matthews Youth Test for Health, (MYTH) and negative characteristics of hyperactivity, negative peer relations, social withdrawal, and depression in 105 children, between the ages of 6 and 11, from lower to middle class Black and White families. Children's age, gender, race, and socioeconomic status (SES) and teachers' gender, grade taught, and years of teaching experience were not related to teachers' MYTH ratings. However, White teachers rated children higher on Type A behavior than Black teachers. Controlling for teacher race effects, MYTH total scores, rather than reflecting a global negative view of the child, showed a strong overlap with hyperactivity and were differentiated from social withdrawal and depression. The MYTH Impatience/Aggression factor was highly related to hyperactivity and negative peer interactions; the Competitiveness factor was associated with a lack of social withdrawal. The conclusions verify the multidimensional nature of children's Type A behavior pattern and the importance of rater demographic characteristics in the assessment of children's behavior.     

The Frequency and Intensity of Negative Attitudes Expressed in Play Therapy: A Comparison of Well-Adjusted and Disturbed Young Children

The relationship of age and IQ to response inhibition in children was investigated in two experiments. Two tasks were employed: a “walk slowly” task designed to measure motor inhibition and a simple matching task designed to measure cognitive inhibition. In Experiment I, the Ss were 20 “normal” children at ages 4, 5, 6, and 7 years of age. Response inhibition was found to increase with age. In Experiment II, the Ss were 48 institutionalized retardates, half between the ages of 8 to 12 and half between the ages of 13 to 17. Half of each age group had IQs between 40 and 55, and half had IQs between 56 and 70. Motor response inhibition varied as a function of age but not IQ, while cognitive inhibition varied as a function of IQ but not age.     

A component analysis of attentional problems of educationally handicapped boys

Seventy-three educationally handicapped (EH) and 78 regular class, normally achieving (NA) boys grades 3–8 were tested with a series of measures selected to test three components of attention: coming to attention, decision making, and maintaining attention over time. EH and NA samples were subdivided into three groups by grade level (grades 3–4, 5–6, and 7–8). Based on a teacher-completed behavioral check list, the EH group was further subdivided according to pupils perceived by teachers as hyperactive or nonhyperactive. With the exception of the youngest group, EH and NA samples did not differ from each other on CA, but regular class boys had slightly higher IQs and better reading scores than did their EH peers;EH hyperactives and EH nonhyperactives differed significantly on reading scores, the difference favoring the nonhyperactives. All pupils were individually administered the Children's Embedded Figures Test (CEFT), the Matching Familiar Figures Test (MFFT), and the Children's Checking Task (CCT), the last designed specifically to assess ability to maintain attention over time. EH pupils did not function as efficiently or as accurately on the attentional tasks as did their normally achieving age peers. Significant differences between EH and NA samples were found for CEFT and MFFT errors, as well as for CCT errors of omission and commission. Analyses of the EH group according to hyperactive-nonhyperactive status were for the most part nonsignificant. Correlational analyses yieMed low but statistically significant relationships among the attentional measures, but nonsignificant relationships between IQ and the attentional test scores. Findings were consistent with the interpretation that the three hypothesized components of attention are partially independent and thus may have differential influence on pupils' performance in school.This research was supported in part by U.S. Public Health Service Grant No. 1 RO 1 25076-01A1 and Contract No. 5893, between the State Department of Education and the University of California, Los Angeles.     

Behavioural precursors of attachment representations in middle childhood and links with child social adaptation

Concordance between age‐6 attachment behaviour and age‐8 doll play attachment representations during the school‐age period, and associations between these measures and child social adaptation at school were examined. One hundred and twenty‐nine 6‐year‐olds and their mothers participated in a separation/reunion protocol. Two years later, 104 children completed a doll play narrative task. Teachers evaluated child behaviour problems and prosocial behaviour at both ages. Results showed a significant four‐way concordance between age‐6 attachment behaviour and age‐8 doll play classifications. Each of the four attachment classifications was concordant in the absence of major negative life‐events, but only the disorganized classifications remained concordant when at least one negative life‐event occurred between the two assessment times. Children with a disorganized attachment classification or representation had higher externalizing scores than secure and avoidant children at both timepoints. Finally, the avoidant and disorganized behavioural classifications predicted avoidant and disorganized representations, respectively, even when controlling for age‐6 teacher reports of social adaptation.     

Developmental changes in face recognition during childhood: Evidence from upright and inverted faces

Adults are experts at recognizing faces but there is controversy about how this ability develops with age. We assessed 6- to 12-year-olds and adults using a digitized version of the Benton Face Recognition Test, a sensitive tool for assessing face perception abilities. Children's response times for correct responses did not decrease between ages 6 and 12, for either upright or inverted faces, but were significantly longer than those of adults for both face types. Accuracy improved between ages 6 and 12, significantly more for upright than inverted faces. Inverted face recognition improved slowly until late childhood, whereas there was a large improvement in upright face recognition between ages 6 and 8, with a further enhancement after age 12. These results provide further evidence that during childhood face processing undergoes protracted development and becomes increasingly tuned to upright faces.     

Children's embedded figures test and matching familiar figures test-20: factorial structure for boys and girls from 6 to 11 years old.

The factorial structure of two tests of cognitive style (the Children's Embedded Figures Test and the Matching Familiar Figures Test-20) and one test of cognitive ability (Raven Progressive Matrices) was examined in this study with a sample of 337 boys and 287 girls between ages 6 and 11 years. Factor I related to Impulsivity and Factor II related to cognitive ability and disembedding skills, which were stable across age groups and sex and accounted for 84.6% of variance.     

A Longitudinal Assessment of Executive Function Skills and Their Association with Math Performance

The present study was designed to examine both concurrent and predictive associations between scores on a measure of executive function (EF) skills, the Contingency Naming Test (CNT), during the early school-age years. A secondary aim of the study was to examine the association between EF skills and mathematics performance. We administered tests of mathematics ability, and the CNT, to 178 children at ages 6 to 7, 8 to 9, and 10 to 11 years. From the CNT we obtained measures of response fluency/efficiency, working memory, and inhibition. The results demonstrate main effects of age on all CNT measures of EF, as anticipated, and inconsistent main effects of gender or mathematics learning disability status. Rates of improvement in EF varied as a function of the working memory demands present during a given task. There were differences in concurrent and predictive correlations for different CNT performance measures. EF scores obtained during the first assessment were as strongly associated with each other as they were with EF scores obtained four years later, suggesting a moderately stable source of individual differences on cognitive performance. EF scores at age 6 to 7 years were associated with concurrent and later mathematics scores, and most of these correlations were stronger than the significant associations found between response fluency on a baseline task (with no working memory demand) and mathematics performance. These findings have implications for the stability of EF skills during the school-age years, and the role of EF in early and later elementary school mathematics performance.     

A longitudinal assessment of executive function skills and their association with math performance.

The present study was designed to examine both concurrent and predictive associations between scores on a measure of executive function (EF) skills, the Contingency Naming Test (CNT), during the early school-age years. A secondary aim of the study was to examine the association between EF skills and mathematics performance. We administered tests of mathematics ability, and the CNT, to 178 children at ages 6 to 7, 8 to 9, and 10 to 11 years. From the CNT we obtained measures of response fluency/efficiency, working memory, and inhibition. The results demonstrate main effects of age on all CNT measures of EF, as anticipated, and inconsistent main effects of gender or mathematics learning disability status. Rates of improvement in EF varied as a function of the working memory demands present during a given task. There were differences in concurrent and predictive correlations for different CNT performance measures. EF scores obtained during the first assessment were as strongly associated with each other as they were with EF scores obtained four years later, suggesting a moderately stable source of individual differences on cognitive performance. EF scores at age 6 to 7 years were associated with concurrent and later mathematics scores, and most of these correlations were stronger than the significant associations found between response fluency on a baseline task (with no working memory demand) and mathematics performance. These findings have implications for the stability of EF skills during the school-age years, and the role of EF in early and later elementary school mathematics performance.     

Motor Performance and Response Consistency as a Function of Age

The specificity versus generality of motor performance and motor response consistency was investigated as a function of age. 120 Ss, 30 each at age 7, 11, 15, and 19 yr., were given 120 practice trials (60 trials per session with 24 hr interpolated between sessions) on both simple and choice RT tasks. For motor performance the reliability of individual differences was high in both tasks at all ages, while the amount of generality was moderately high in the two younger groups but diminished with age. The reliability coefficients for motor response consistency were low for both tasks but, with two exceptions, statistically significant. There was no evidence for generality in motor response consistency at any age.     

Motor performance and response consistency as a function of age

The specificity versus generality of motor performance and motor response consistency ws investigated as a function of age. 120 Ss, 30 each at age 7, 11, 15 and 19 yr., were given 120 practice trials (60 trials per session with 24 hr. interpolated between sessions) on both simple and choice RT tasks. For motor performance the reliability of individual differences were high in both tasks at all ages, while the amount of generality was moderately high in the two younger groups but diminished with age. The reliability coefficients for motor response consistency were low for both tasks but, with two exceptions, statistically significant. There was no evidences for generality in motor response consistency at any age.     

Correlations among scores on measures of field dependence-independence cognitive style, cognitive ability, and sustained attention

The Children's Embedded Figures Test, the Rod and Frame Test to measure the field dependence-independence cognitive style, Cattell's Culture Fair Intelligence Tests to measure cognitive ability, and two cancellation tasks (Zazzo task and Bourdon task) to assess sustained attention were administered to 179 boys and 110 girls whose average age was 9.0 yr. Correlations between scores on measures of field dependence-independence and cognitive ability were moderated. Average correlations between scores on measures of field dependence-independence, cognitive ability, and measures of sustained attention was .23 for the Zazzo task and quite weak (.06) for the Bourdon task.     

Field dependence in relation to alcohol consumption: a co-twin control study.

20 male, alcohol-discordant twin pairs, aged 45 to 65 yr. were compared for field-dependent cognitive style and general intelligence by means of one-sample t and multivariate Td2-tests. The high alcohol group was more field-dependent (p less than .01) than the low alcohol group, mainly because of poorer scores on the Embedded-figures Test. When general intelligence was controlled for, the amount of embedded-figures variance accounted for by consumption of alcohol dropped considerably.     

Temporal Orientation,Human Movement Responses and Time Estimation

The relationship between temporal orientation, human movement (M) responses on the Barron inkblots, and brief time estimates was investigated. Knapp's Time Metaphor Test and the Barron inkblots were administered to 110 Ss. 40 Ss were selected on the basis of their scores on the Time Metaphor Test to participate in an individual time estimation experiment This produced two criterion groups: 20 Dynamic-Hasty (D-H) Ss and 20 Naturalist-Passive (N-P) Ss. Results indicated that N-P Ss had a lower M threshold, perceived more M and overestimated the passage of time. Discussion focused on the relationship between temporal orientation, fantasy behavior, and impulse control.     

Comparison of culturally deprived school achievers and underachievers on memory function and perception.

To compare the memory function and perception of culturally deprived achievers with underachievers, 36 culturally deprived children were assigned to one of two groups according to their achievement level, in relation to their age and IQ. Underachievers were children achieving 6 mo. or more below expected level. Achievers were children achieving within at least 5 mo. of expected level. All subjects were between the ages of 8 and 12 yr. and were in Grades 4, 5, or 6. Four tests were administered, the Block Design and Digit Span subtests of the WISC, Memory-for-Designs, and the Minnesota Percepto-Diagnostic Test. The two groups did not differ on the first three tests, but the achievers performed significantly better on the last test than the underachievers. It was speculated that the differences were related to level of motor execution.     

Sex differences in affective responses as evidenced on the Bene-Anthony Test

This study investigates changes in a child's perception of the relationship with male and female parents during the course of the critical ages of 5, 6, 7, and 8. Correspondingly, since the paper concerns itself with nonpathological normal children, it also provides normative data on the Bene-Anthony Family Relations Test. Findings indicate variable gender and age differences in the feelings experienced by children aged 5, 6, 7, and 8 towards male and female parents. There are differences between male and female children in their attitudes toward mother and father, and there are significant changes within the age ranks. Sweeping norms which do not take age and gender into account are inappropriate on the basis of our findings.     

Field dependence and the solution of word and nonsense anagrams

This study investigated the relation between field dependence-independence and performance on word and nonsense anagrams with 66 college students. Field independence as measured by the Group Embedded-figures Test was significantly associated with correct solution of word anagrams but not with correct solution of nonsense anagrams, the difference between the correlateons being significant even when verbal and spatial-perceptual ability were partialled out. Overall nonsense anagrams were easier to solve than word anagrams. Results were consistent with the idea that field-dependent individuals have greater difficulty breaking up and rearranging an organized stimulus complex than field-independent individuals.     

Assessment of Children's Type A Behavior: Relationship With Negative Behavioral Characteristics and Children and Teacher Demographic Characteristics

Thirty-two teachers rated Type A behavior, using the Matthews Youth Test for Health, (MYTH) and negative characteristics of hyperactivity, negative relations, social withdrawal, and depression in 105 children, between the ages of 6 and 11, from lower to middle class Black and White families. Children's age, gender, race, and socioeconomic status (SES) and teachers' gender, grade taught, and vein of teaching experience were not related to teachers' MYTH ratings. However, White teachers rated children higher on Type A behavior than Black teachers. Controlling for teacher race effects, MYTH total scores, rather than reflecting a global negative view of the child, showed a strong overlap with hyperactivity and were differentiated from social withdrawal and depression. The MYTH Impatience/Aggression factor was highly related to hyperactivity and negative peer interactions; the Competitiveness factor was associated with a lack of social withdrawal. The conclusions verify the multidimensional nature of children's Type A behavior pattern and the importance of rates demographic characteristics in the assessment of children's behavior.