Birth,kind and naïve biology

Much recent debate concerning the acquisition of naïve theories of biology and of race has turned on the claim that even preschoolers understand biological inheritance. At issue is what is implied by the belief that offspring will have the characteristic features of their kind. The present paper argues that such an essentialist belief in innate potential need not indicate a domain‐specific understanding of the biological inheritance of human kinds (or race). In Study 1, preschoolers in a Switched‐at‐birth task were found to be as likely to judge an adopted girl to resemble her birth parents on the color of their shirts as on their race. In Study 2, a variant on the task, 4‐year‐olds were found to be more likely to judge the girl to resemble her adoptive parents, suggesting that the concept of birth origin was not central to their reasoning. Though the results are consistent with the claim that preschoolers reason about human kinds in an essentialist manner, they undermine the broader claim that such reasoning is anchored by a naïve theory of biology. The finding is of cultural as well as cognitive consequence.     

Children's conceptions of mental illness: A naïve theory approach

This paper reports two studies that investigated children's conceptions of mental illness using a naïve theory approach, drawing upon a conceptual framework for analysing illness representations which distinguishes between the identity, causes, consequences, curability, and timeline of an illness. The studies utilized semi‐structured interviewing and card selection tasks to assess 6‐ to 11‐year‐old children's conceptions of the causes and consequences (Study 1) and the curability and timeline (Study 2) of different mental and physical illnesses/ailments. The studies revealed that, at all ages, the children held coherent causal–explanatory ideas about the causes, consequences, curability, and timeline of both mental and physical illnesses/ailments. However, while younger children tended to rely on their knowledge of common physical illnesses when thinking about mental illnesses, providing contagion and contamination explanations of cause, older children demonstrated differences in their thinking about mental and physical illnesses. No substantial gender differences were found in the children's thinking. It is argued that children hold coherent conceptions of mental illness at all ages, but that mental illness only emerges as an ontologically distinct conceptual domain by the end of middle childhood.     

Origins of adolescents’ autobiographical memories

Adolescents (N = 46; M = 12.46 years) who had previously participated in a longitudinal study of autobiographical memory development narrated their early childhood memories, interpreted life events, and completed a family history questionnaire and language assessment. Three distinct components of adolescent memory emerged: (1) age of earliest memory and insight into life events; (2) volume of early memories; and (3) density of specific memories from early childhood. Children's language, self-awareness, and theory of mind during early childhood (19–51 months) all contributed to their memories as adolescents. However, adolescents’ early reminiscing environment was the best single predictor of the age and volume of their early memories and their insight into life events. In contrast, adolescents’ delayed self-recognition and reminiscing in early childhood predicted the density of their early memories. These findings provide partial support for theories of autobiographical memory development.     

The structure of Chinese adolescents’ conscience: A scale and its application

Based on traditional Chinese conscience theory, we defined the concept of conscience after reviewing the relevant literature. We constructed a preliminary theoretical model of the conscience structure through in‐depth interviews conducted with a sample of 127 Chinese adolescents and an open‐ended questionnaire conducted with 374 volunteers based on the consensual qualitative research (CQR) method. Then, we developed a preliminary conscience scale questionnaire and surveyed 702 people to obtain data for the development of the final questionnaire. The analysis indicated that the self‐developed questionnaire had good reliability and validity. The revised structure model of conscience in Chinese adolescents includes five dimensions: (a) compassion, (b) honesty and credibility, (c) a sense of right and wrong, (d) filial piety and fraternal duty, and (e) gratitude. Using this scale, we surveyed 1,009 adolescents in China. We have discussed the characteristic differences in scale scores among different age cohorts, genders, subject disciplines, and places of residence.     

Video‐game training and naïve reasoning about object motion

Naïve conceptions and associated misconceptions about object motion arise in part from limitations on perceptual experience. Certain commercial video games, such as Enigmo, provide interactive experience with realistic trajectories and practice at purposefully manipulating those trajectories. We tested the possibility that this experience could modify naïve intuitions about object motion, bringing them into closer alignment with Newtonian principles of mechanics. Fifty‐one middle‐school children were randomly assigned to play either Enigmo or a strategy game for six sessions. Only the Enigmo group improved their ability to generate realistic trajectories, but this improvement was limited to learning about the general parabolic shape of trajectories. After training, both groups received a 30‐minute tutorial on Newtonian principles which generated a much larger improvement in producing realistic trajectories than did game play. This improvement was of similar magnitude in both training groups, indicating that gaming experience provided no advantage in deriving benefits from direct instruction. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Beyond naïve cue combination: salience and social cues in early word learning

Children learn their earliest words through social interaction, but it is unknown how much they rely on social information. Some theories argue that word learning is fundamentally social from its outset, with even the youngest infants understanding intentions and using them to infer a social partner's target of reference. In contrast, other theories argue that early word learning is largely a perceptual process in which young children map words onto salient objects. One way of unifying these accounts is to model word learning as weighted cue combination, in which children attend to many potential cues to reference, but only gradually learn the correct weight to assign each cue. We tested four predictions of this kind of naïve cue combination account, using an eye‐tracking paradigm that combines social word teaching and two‐alternative forced‐choice testing. None of the predictions were supported. We thus propose an alternative unifying account: children are sensitive to social information early, but their ability to gather and deploy this information is constrained by domain‐general cognitive processes. Developmental changes in children's use of social cues emerge not from learning the predictive power of social cues, but from the gradual development of attention, memory, and speed of information processing.     

The impact of hope, self-esteem, and attributional style on adolescents’ school grades and emotional well-being: A longitudinal study

We examined the distinctiveness of three “positive thinking” variables (self-esteem, trait hope, and positive attributional style) in predicting future high school grades, teacher-rated adjustment, and students’ reports of their affective states. Seven hundred eighty-four high school students (382 males and 394 females; 8 did not indicate their gender) completed Time 1 measures of verbal and numerical ability, positive thinking, and indices of emotional well-being (positive affect, sadness, fear, and hostility), and Time 2 measures of hope, self-esteem, and emotional well-being. Multi-level random coefficient modelling revealed that each positive thinking variable was distinctive in some contexts but not others. Hope was a predictor of positive affect and the best predictor of grades, negative attributional style was the best predictor of increases in hostility and fear, and low self-esteem was the best predictor of increases in sadness. We also found that sadness at Time 1 predicted decreases in self-esteem at Time 2. The results are discussed with reference to the importance of positive thinking for building resilience.     

Heterosexual adolescents’ and young adults’ beliefs and attitudes about homosexuality and gay and lesbian peers

Reports on the school climate for gay and lesbian students in the United States suggest that negative attitudes toward gay and lesbian individuals are quite common in adolescence. Very little research, however, has investigated adolescents’ sexual prejudice from a developmental perspective. In this study, 10th- (N = 119) and 12th- (N = 145) grade adolescents and college-aged young adults (N = 86) completed a questionnaire assessing their beliefs and attitudes about homosexuality, their comfort with gay and lesbian students, and their judgments and reasoning regarding the treatment of gay or lesbian peers in school. Results indicate that middle adolescents (14–16) are more likely than older adolescents (16–18) and young adults (19–26) to exhibit sexual prejudice related to social interaction with gay and lesbian peers. Interestingly, however, age-related differences in beliefs about whether homosexuality was right or wrong were not found. These findings provide evidence for age-related differences in some aspects of sexual prejudice but not others and underscore the importance of using multiple measures in assessing the development of this type of prejudice.     

Therapists’ understandings and experiences of working with clients with problems of addiction: A pilot study using Q methodology

This pilot study aims to increase our understanding of therapists’ subjective attitudes, beliefs, and experiences of working with clients with problems of addiction. The study yielded useful clarifications, arising from the finding that opinions about the nature of addiction support different approaches to therapy. In addition, it seems that diverse or conflicting attitudes and beliefs are likely to impact on the ability of therapists to work together effectively. Another objective was to test the feasibility of using Q methodology in this study and more broadly in qualitative research in psychotherapy. Participants were 13 therapists from a variety of backgrounds and working in a range of agencies. Using Q methodology, four distinctive factors were identified, indicating divergent understandings of addiction. Each factor is shown to be a multifaceted construct which does not correspond to any single theory or therapeutic orientation. It is suggested that the results have significant implications for therapists’ training and supervision. In addition, this study demonstrates the capacity of Q methodology to identify commonalities and diversity in viewpoints which do not conform to a priori conceptualisations. As a pilot study, this paper invites further discussion and research.     

AIRA: Measurement of adolescents’ judgments regarding intentions to respond to physical and verbal aggression

The current study utilized a structural equations approach in developing an instrument to investigate adolescents’ (N = 510; 9th–12th graders) judgments about the likelihood that they would actively respond to a witnessed aggressive situation. Two aggressive subscales were developed: physical and verbal. The instrument controlled for the relationship (acquaintance vs. friend) of the witness to the perpetrator and to the victim involved in the event. Results provided evidence for a domain approach to judgments about active responses to aggression. Furthermore, as predicted, the factors of gender, age, relationship of the witness to both the victim and the perpetrator, and aggressive situation influenced adolescents’ judgments. Regardless of whether the perpetrator and the victim were acquaintances or friends of the witness, younger males indicated that they were less likely to respond to acts of physical aggression than were adolescents in the other three groups. In contrast, when acquaintances were involved in situations involving verbal aggression, younger males were less likely to respond than were younger females. When the perpetrator and the victim were friends of the witness, females, regardless of age, were more likely than males to respond to verbally aggressive acts. Aggr. Behav. 28:207–223, 2002. © 2002 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

You are my best friend: Commitment and stability in adolescents’ same‐sex friendships

A 2‐wave longitudinal study among 678 early and 317 middle adolescents investigated the applicability of Rusbult’s investment model to adolescent best friendships and tested its usefulness in predicting friendship stability. Results showed that satisfaction, quality of alternatives, and investments predict commitment in friendships, both concurrently and over time. Furthermore, investment model variables predicted friendship stability and, among stable friendships, predicted the tendency to switch best friends. Commitment mediated the effects of satisfaction, investment, and alternatives on tendency to switch. As expected, gender and age differences were found in that alternatives were more important for older adolescents and associations among model variables were stronger for girls. Overall, the investment model proved useful in predicting commitment and stability in adolescents’ best friendships.     

Three measures of closeness in adolescents’ relationships with parents and friends: Variations and developmental significance

Two studies examined the nature and developmental significance of closeness in adolescents’ relationships with parents and friends. Three measures of relationship closeness (i.e., interdependence, emotional tone, and subjective opinion) were compared and contrasted. In Study 1, grade and gender differences in closeness in relationships with mothers, fathers, and friends were examined. Participants were 133 adolescents in Grades 7, 9, and 11 and 135 of their parents. Closeness in relationships with mothers, fathers, and friends varied based on closeness measure, grade of adolescent, gender of adolescent, and gender of parent. The results suggest that the interdependence measure offers a perspective on adolescents’ close relationships that differs from that provided by the emotional tone and subjective opinion measures. In Study 2, associations were examined between the three measures of closeness in adolescents’ relationships with mothers, fathers, and friends and adolescents’ problem behavior, substance use, and school performance. Participants included 107 adolescents in Grades 7 and 10. In combination, the measures of closeness in relationships with mothers and with fathers explained significant variability in the criterion variables, and reports of interdependence and emotional tone emerged as unique, significant predictors. The results highlight distinctions among the three conceptualizations that are commonly purported to assess a close relationship and point to the utility and validity of interdependence and emotional tone as measures of closeness in adolescents’ relationships.     

Effects of personality, rearing styles and social values on adolescents’ socialisation process

This study was designed to investigate the relationships of the socialisation process with the Big-Five personality traits, empathy, parent-rearing styles and social values. The main aim was to detect which variables predict better socialisation outcomes. A socialisation battery for adolescents (BAS-3), the Big-Five Questionnaire (BFQ), Bryant’s Index of Empathy (IECA), the Egna Minnen av Barndoms Uppfostran-My memories of upbringing (EMBU) and a Social Values Inventory (SVI) were applied to 832 Spanish adolescents. Also, 134 parent couples agreed to fill out the version of the socialisation battery for adolescents’ parents (BAS-2). Results show that personality dispositions, parent-rearing styles and social values were related to socialisation reported by children. Patterns of relationships showed that different variables account for different socialisation outcomes. However, when these variables were related to the socialisation outcomes reported by parents, relationships were considerably lower. The implications of the present study are discussed.     

Interview training with adolescents—A controlled group study incorporating generalization and social validation

Ten school-leavers were allocated either to an interview-training group (E) or a discussion control group (C) for three sessions. For E group a combination of modelling, coaching, roleplay, feedback and discussion was used to train both verbal and non-verbal interview skills. An attempt was made to programme generalization of treatment effect into training and subjective evaluations of interview skill were made by an experienced Personnel Officer to assess the social importance of the skills trained. After C group had completed three sessions to control for the non-specific effects of being in therapy, they received the same training as E group. Subjects were assessed using videotaped roleplayed interviews at the beginning and end of each training phase. After training E group showed significant improvements on both global and specific ratings of interview skill compared to C group; there was evidence of generalization and maintenance of treatment effect and the social importance of the skills trained was substantiated by the subjective evaluation data. C group then went on to replicate the changes in E group.     

“Honey, you’re jumping about”—Mothers’ scaffolding of their children's and adolescents’ life narration

Research on mother–child reminiscing as a socializing practice for autobiographical memory is extended from early childhood and the narrating of single events to adolescence and the narrating of an entire life story. To explore whether the development of the life story in adolescence depends on qualities of the narrator or on the brevity of the narrated life, and whether mothers adapt their scaffolding strategies in co-narrations of the child's life to the child's zone of proximal development, 16 mother–child pairs (child's ages 8, 12, 16, and 20 years) both co-narrated and individually narrated the child's life. As expected, only the coherence of the children's, but not the mothers’, narratives varied with the child's age. Also, mothers supported temporal structuring more in younger children and arguments about personality and its development more in adolescents.     

Social influence processes on adolescents’ food likes and consumption: the role of parental authoritativeness and individual self‐monitoring

This cross‐sectional study investigated how parents and friends influence adolescents’ food likes and consumption. 709 adolescent‐parent and 638 adolescent‐friend dyads completed a questionnaire, allowing us to compare target‐parent and target‐friend resemblances both on food likes and consumption, while distinguishing between cultural influence and dyadic unique influence. In addition, we identified two psychosocial predictors of resemblance, namely parenting style and adolescents' self‐monitoring. As expected, results indicated that authoritative parenting style increased target‐parent resemblance in food likes (directly) and consumption (indirectly), and self‐monitoring orientation increased target‐friend resemblance in food likes (directly) and consumption (indirectly). We also showed that target‐friend resemblance was more culture‐based than target‐parent resemblance, suggesting that parental influence is more specific to the dyadic relation than is peer influence.     

Coercive family processes: A replication and extension of Patterson’s coercion model

Patterson hypothesized that aggressive behavior develops in families when parents use coercion as the primary mode for controlling their children. The model has been tested with boys and older children. In this paper, through confirmatory factor analysis, we examine how well the coercion model generalizes to 5‐year‐old children (boys and girls). Our results suggest that the model fits the data similarly for boys and girls. Few sex differences in child antisocial behavior were found on observed or parent‐rated measures, nor were differences found in observed parent aversive responses to child behavior. This implies that similar coercion processes apply to both boys and girls. Aggr. Behav. 27:14–25, 2001. © 2001 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Parental rearing behavior prospectively predicts adolescents’ risky decision‐making and feedback‐related electrical brain activity

The present study examined the role of parental rearing behavior in adolescents’ risky decision‐making and the brain's feedback processing mechanisms. Healthy adolescent participants (n = 110) completed the EMBU‐C, a self‐report questionnaire on perceived parental rearing behaviors between 2006 and 2008 (T1). Subsequently, after an average of 3.5 years, we assessed (a) risky decision‐making during performance of the Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART); (b) event‐related brain potentials (ERPs) elicited by positive (gain) and negative feedback (loss) during the BART; and (c) self‐reported substance use behavior (T2). Age‐corrected regression analyses showed that parental rejection at T1 accounted for a unique and significant proportion of the variance in risk‐taking during the BART; the more adolescents perceived their parents as rejecting, the more risky decisions were made. Higher levels of perceived emotional warmth predicted increased P300 amplitudes in response to positive feedback at T2. Moreover, these larger P300 amplitudes (gain) significantly predicted risky decision‐making during the BART. Parental rearing behaviors during childhood thus seem to be significant predictors of both behavioral and electrophysiological indices of risky decision‐making in adolescence several years later. This is in keeping with the notion that environmental factors such as parental rearing are important in explaining adolescents’ risk‐taking propensities.     

Children's and adolescents’ tolerance for divergent beliefs: Exploring the cognitive and affective dimensions of moral conviction in our youth

Moral conviction predicts interpersonal tolerance in adults, but its role in children and adolescents is not as well understood. This study measured moral conviction for a variety of issues along two separate dimensions – cognitive and affective – in children and adolescents (4th–12th grade). Results showed that, like adults, when children and adolescents view an issue as moral, this is strongly predictive of both age groups’ discomfort with divergent beliefs. But only for adolescents, and not children, did moral conviction play a role in that discomfort, as had previously been found with adults. The context in which the divergent beliefs were encountered also mattered, but more for adolescents than for children – both groups were most comfortable with divergent beliefs when they were encountered in distal relations.