Motivational bases in mixed-motive interactions: The effects of comparison levels

The relationship between reward level and the basic motives which underlie strategic choices (competitive and noncompetitive) in a mixed-motive game was examined from two theoretical perspectives. The “regret” interpretation proposed by McClintock and McNeel was compared to an approach based upon Thibout and Kelley's concept of comparison level (CL). Two independent variables, CL and Reward, were manipulated by varying the payoff rates in two playing series of the MDG. Initially, 50 iterations were played for high (4¢ per point) or low ($\text{1}\text{5¢}$ per point) incentive to provide subjects with outcomes upon which to base their CL's. The Reward manipulation was introduced in 150 subsequent trials of the game with subjects playing for 8¢ or 1¢ per point. The results show that the absolute magnitude of reward did not influence the extent of cooperative or competitive behavior. On the other hand, the magnitude of reward relative to CL was significantly associated with the degree of cooperative behavior—supra-CL outcomes yielding a higher frequency of cooperative behavior than infra-CL outcomes.     

Motivational control of impulsive behavior interacts with choice opportunities

Impulsive behavior has been investigated through choice between a smaller/immediate reinforcer and a larger/delayed reinforcer, or through performance on a differential reinforcement of low rate (DRL) schedule. In the present study, we investigated a methodological divergence between these two procedures: in the former procedure, delay is a consequence of the subject's own choice, whereas in the later procedure, subjects are explicitly reinforced for delaying a response. In Experiment 1, 7 rats maintained at 80% of their free-feeding weights showed poorer efficiency of lever-pressing responses on a DRL 30-s schedule than when they were maintained at 90% of free-feeding weight. In Experiment 2, 16 rats were subjected to a concurrent chain schedule: the initial link was concurrent fixed ratio 1 fixed ratio 1, and each of these alternatives was followed by a short-DRL requirement with a one pellet reinforcer or a long-DRL requirement with a three pellet reinforcer. In one block of trials, rats were not allowed to choose between the two terminal links (forced-choice), whereas in the other block of trials rats were allowed to choose freely between the two terminal links (free-choice). Compared with rats maintained at 95% of their free-feeding weights, rats maintained at 80% of their free-feeding weights showed poorer efficiency in the terminal links’ DRL schedule performance (just as in Experiment 1), but this difference was shown only in the forced-choice blocks. These results indicate that motivational control of DRL schedule performance interacts with type of choice-making opportunity and highlight the direct comparison of motivational control of impulsive choice and DRL schedule performance.     

The effect of a non-informative cueing signal in a three-choice reaction-time task

Summary Many studies have shown that in a simple reaction-time (RT) task a non-informative leading cue decreases RT to a subsequent target presented in the same region as the cue. This facilitation lasts about 150 ms; it is then replaced by a sustained inhibition. Experiment 1 tests the hypothesis that the initial facilitation is due to motor, rather than perceptual, processes by using choice RT. Facilitation is greater and lasts longer in choice than in simple tasks, thus supporting the hypothesis. Experiment 2 shows that facilitation occurs even when the subject actively orients his or her attention away from the cue.     

Motivational control of blocking

Hungry and thirsty rats lever pressed for food pellets in 1 visual stimulus (V1) and for a saline solution in another stimulus (V2). In a 2nd phase, the rats were made either hungry or thirsty and pressed for a starch solution in 2 stimulus compounds, each containing 1 of the visual cues and an auditory cue, that is, V1A1 and V2A2. On test, rats responded less to A1 than to A2 when hungry but less to A2 than to A1 when thirsty. Two further experiments replicated this selective blocking effect when the rats were both hungry and thirsty during Phase 2 and demonstrated that the magnitude of blocking was comparable to that observed when the reinforcer identity was held constant across the 2 phases.     

Motivational Interviewing in Primary Care

Healthcare systems are in the process of reforming themselves to better meet the needs of people with, or at risk of developing, chronic diseases and long term conditions. One goal of these efforts is the coproduction of activated, informed, engaged and motivated patients and citizens. The clinical, public health and financial benefits of achieving such a goal may be dramatic. Motivational Interviewing (MI) is a proven and practical front-line approach which can help deliver this goal whilst also helping to deliver such policy objectives and intermediate outcomes as increased levels of patient centered care, participatory or shared decision making, evidence-based healthcare and improved clinician-patient relationships. Until now, MI has been passively diffusing through the system as a result of the innovation and early uptake by insightful individuals and organizations. If healthcare systems want to breakthrough to higher levels of performance, investment in the conscious and deliberate implementation of MI into front-line settings may prove helpful.     

Determinants of the benefit for consistent spatial mappings in dual-task performance of three-choice tasks

Performance of pairs of three-choice tasks shows a consistency benefit for which reaction times are shorter when the stimulus-response mappings for each task are consistent (both corresponding or both mirrored) than when they are inconsistent. In the present study, we examined whether this consistency benefit is reduced at long stimulus onset asynchronies, as it is for pairs of two-choice tasks, or is relatively unaffected, as it is for pairs of four-choice tasks. The consistency benefit was evident for both corresponding and mirrored mappings, at all intervals. For consistent mirrored mappings, the benefit was found for the side stimulus positions (for which responses are crossed) but not for the center position, whereas for consistent corresponding mappings, a benefit was evident for the center position as well. The results for both mappings are in agreement with an emergent mapping-choice account. The consistent corresponding mapping also benefits from subjects’ ability to apply a respond-corresponding rule across tasks. An emergent perceptual-feature process that contributes to the consistency benefit for two-choice tasks does not seem to play a role in tasks with three or more choices.     

Motivational effects in the mere-exposure paradigm

Three experiments investigated the effects of time-pressure and evaluation apprehension on the mere-exposure phenomenon (Zajonc, 1968). Subjects viewed slides of abstract paintings at different frequencies of exposure and subsequently indicated their liking for the stimuli. Evaluation apprehension during the assessment phase consistently undermined mere-exposure effects. Furthermore, when evaluation apprehension was high, time-pressure magnified those effects. These findings were discussed in terms of the notions that (1) prior exposure may increase the sense of processing fluency associated with a stimulus (Jacoby & Kelley, 1990), (2) fluency may be interpreted as plausibility of a judgmental cue evoked by the stimulus, (3) motivational factors like time-pressure and evaluation apprehension may moderate the impact of plausibility information on judgment, hence, may moderate ‘mere-exposure’ effects.     

A model of three-choice discrimination learning under complete and incomplete feedback conditions

The Bower and Trabasso model of concept identification was extended to cover problems in which three stimuli were presented simultaneously and S pointed to the one he thought was correct. The E gave complete feedback by indicating the correct stimulus, or incomplete feedback by saying “correct” or “wrong.” The model accurately accounted for the significant difference in total errors between the two feedback conditions by incorporating process assumptions reflecting the logical difference in information content of the two types of feedback. Using a single set of parameter estimates, the model made satisfactory quantitative predictions of several statistics for both feedback conditions. Some deviations from the model's predictions were found in the length of terminal error runs, indicating that Ss were possibly using memory more extensively than posited by the model.     

Motivational factors in health and disease

Evidence is reviewed that measures of motive strength, as measured through content analysis of associative thought, are related to physiological systems, the functioning of which affect health outcomes. Studies show that affiliative and power motive syndromes assessed in associative thought are associated with health and illness. A relaxed or easygoing affiliative motive syndrome characterizes insulin dependent Type I diabetics and can, if aroused, lead to poorer blood sugar control in such diabetics. A stressed power motive syndrome is associated with sympathetic activation, release of stress hormones, depressed immune functions, and greater susceptibility to infectious diseases. Affiliative trust and a greater sense of agency as measured in associative thought content are associated with better health. An intervention study and a longitudinal study have demonstrated that differences in the levels of these motivational variables are not simply the result of illness but lead to alterations in subsequent health status.     

Motivational determinants of coalition formation

Coalition preferences of 300 male and female subjects were ascertained under varying motivational conditions. Two of the experimental conditions repeated the typical three-person coalition paradigm, with a monetary reward (extrinsic motivation) offered for the winning of a luck-determined game. In a third condition, skill rather than luck influenced the outcome and no monetary reward was given for winning (intrinsic motivation). Two additional conditions examined coalition preferences in a mixed-motive situation, with either a small or a large monetary reward offered for winning a skill-related game. In the extrinsic motivation condition, the low and the medium resource persons typically desired to coalesce, contrary to the wishes of the excluded, high resource player. In contrast, the coalition between the low and the medium resource persons also was preferred by the high resource player in the intrinsic motivation condition. Coalition conflict was intermediate in the mixed-motive conditions. In sum, it was demonstrated that coalition formation and interpersonal conflict are dependent upon the motivational determinants of group activity.     

Motivational Dynamics of Disadvantaged Women

Two hundred and five disadvantaged women completed standardized psychometric inventories (Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire, Motivation Analysis Test, Tennessee Self-Concept Scale, Internal-External Control Scale, Work Attitude Scale) and a structured interview (attitude-value, activity, life concerns items). Factor analysis was used to organize these data; correlational analyses indicated that the inventory and interview dimensions tapped essentially independent aspects within the total motivation domain. Compared with inventory norms, these women exhibited torpidity and submissiveness, depressed motivation, poor selfesteem, but positive work attitudes. Differences between dichotomous subgroups defined by six major demographic variables were consistent with previous literature; the most salient pattern of subgroup differences showed that black, less intelligent, and less educated women were less positive toward work and more externally oriented. In sum, these women appeared resigned and lethargic; no causal inference was drawn, but it was cautioned that choice of counseling procedures should be based on a differentiation of diminished from initial lack of motivation.     

Motivational control of second-order conditioning

Two experiments examined the motivational specificity of the associations that support 2nd-order conditioning. In the 1st phase of each experiment rats were exposed to 2 visual conditioned stimuli (CSs) paired with either a saline or food pellet unconditioned stimulus (US) prior to exposure to 2nd-order conditioning using 2 auditory CSs, 1 paired with each visual CS. Rats' motivational state was then shifted prior to a test such that if and only if specific motivational features of the 1st-order training US played a role in the 2nd-order associative structure would responding to the 2nd-order cues shift appropriately with the state change. Even when the US was irrelevant to the training motivational state, shifts in state revealed that it was encoded within the associative structure supporting 2nd-order responding.     

Motivational properties of conditioned suppression

Two experiments were performed to investigate the interaction of baseline appetitive drive and incentive on the conditioned suppression of instrumental behavior exhibited in the presence of a preaversive stimulus. In one experiment, suppression of lever pressing of rats working on an intermittent food reinforcement schedule was considerably enhanced following partial satiation with food. In a second experiment, using a similar baseline, suppression was shown to be diminished by an increase in concentration of the baseline incentive. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that the instrumental suppression of the conditioned emotional response (CER) is a consequence of an algebraic interaction of hunger with fear.