Personal relative deprivation, delay discounting, and gambling

Several lines of research have provided evidence for a relation between personal relative deprivation and gambling. Despite this knowledge, little is known about possible psychological mechanisms through which personal relative deprivation exerts its influence on gambling. The authors of this research sought to examine one such mechanism: the desire for immediate rewards. Using complementary approaches to studying psychological mechanisms, they tested in four studies the general hypothesis that personal relative deprivation translates into gambling urges and behavior in part via increased desires for immediate, even if smaller, rewards. Study 1 showed that an experimental manipulation of personal relative deprivation increased participants' preferences for smaller-sooner over larger-later rewards during a delay-discounting task. Studies 2 and 3 showed that a decreased willingness to delay gratification led to increased gambling behavior. Study 4 showed that preferences for smaller-sooner over larger-later rewards statistically mediated the relation between self-reported personal relative deprivation and gambling urges among a community sample of gamblers. The implications and potential applications of these findings are discussed.     

Characterization of controlled gamblers and pathological gamblers using the social representation theory

Introduction

In industrialized countries, gambling disorder tends to become a major issue. The use of the social representation theory provides clues for a better understanding of pathological gamblers.

Pathological gambling and obsessive-compulsive spectrum disorders

To test the hypothesis that pathological gambling can be classified as an Obsessive-Compulsive Spectrum Disorder, the Padua Inventory was administered to 40 diagnosed pathological gamblers and a control group of 40 normal subjects. Analysis showed that the pathological gamblers obtained a significantly higher mean total score on obsessionality than controls. Elevated scores on two factors reflecting impaired control of mental activities and loss of motor control contributed to the over-all difference. In the context of other research suggesting pathological gamblers would score high on psychometric measures of impulsivity, this study provides preliminary support for a Spectrum Disorder Model, suggesting that pathological gamblers are characterised by elevated scores on traits of 'impulsivity' and 'obsessionality.'     

Reliability and Validity of the Gamblers Anonymous Twenty Questions

One of the earliest instruments to screen for problem gambling, the Twenty Questions (20Q), was developed within Gamblers Anonymous. This instrument has not received serious research attention, however, and its psychometric properties are generally unknown. This study reports reliability and validity data for this instrument in 3 independent samples totaling 456 participants: two samples of problem gamblers in treatment and a non-treatment sample of problem gamblers. The Twenty Questions was shown to possess high reliability as measured by Cronbach’s alpha. Concurrent, convergent and predictive validity of the 20Q supported the use of this instrument as an acceptable screening instrument. Classification analyses indicated that the 20Q is comparable to the DSM-IV diagnostic criteria for pathological gambling in specificity, sensitivity and rates of false negatives and false positives. The 20Q appears to be a reliable and valid measure of problem gambling and warrants continued research attention.     

Modeling Potential Psychological Risk Factors of Pathological Gambling

This paper proposes a model of potential psychological risk factors antecedent to pathological gambling. Proposed relationships are tested using a structural equations methodology for 2 samples: (a) gamblers composed of members of Gamblers Anonymous and individuals clinically diagnosed and in treatment for pathological gambling. and (b) a demographically matched sample drawn from the general population of a 3-state area from which the gamblers were recruited. Results show both intriguing similarities and differences in relationships among the risk factors. Specifically. for these 2 samples, relationships among the constructs of neurotic/obsessive thoughts, self-esteem, impulsiveness, and anxiety/nervousness are generally similar, but relationships between model constructs and a measure of probable pathological gambling varies across the samples.     

Pathological Women Gamblers: Gender-Related Aspects of Control

This study examines the control exhibited by pathological women gamblers over their lives and their surroundings, and how this is governed by their perception of their gender role and socio-cultural expectations of them as women. Seventeen pathological women gamblers (13 of whom were mothers) were recruited from three addiction treatment centers in Israel, and participated in semi-structured interviews. Three central themes emerged during analysis: maintaining control over the gender roles—putting child raising and housekeeping duties first despite their gambling habits; control over the choice of gambling venue—gambling far from their home, or where they knew the owners; and moral control—steering clear of immoral behaviors in spite of their addiction to gambling. Further analysis reveals how pathological women gamblers who are also mothers make rational choices that help them juggle between their gender roles and gambling, to minimize the social costs that might be incurred by their gambling habit. Moreover, presenting the gambling behavior as more moral than theft or prostitution enabled them to normalize their behavior. The study’s findings show how the decisions and choices made by the women in this study are shaped by the socio-cultural context in which they are made.     

A comparison of individual and group cognitive-behavioural treatment for female pathological gambling

The current study aimed to determine the differential efficacy of a cognitive-behavioural treatment program for female pathological gamblers delivered in individual and group format. Fifty-six female pathological gamblers with electronic gaming machine gambling problems were randomly assigned to the control (waiting list) group or one of the treatment groups (individual or group treatment). Treatment comprised a 12-session program including financial limit setting, alternative activity planning, cognitive correction, problem solving, communication training, relapse prevention, and imaginal desensitisation. Treatment outcome was evaluated with conceptually related measures within the areas of gambling behaviour and psychological functioning. While individual and group treatment formats generally produced comparable outcomes in terms of gambling behaviour and psychological functioning, group treatment failed to produce superior outcomes to the control group in relation to several measures of psychological functioning. Moreover, by the completion of the six-month follow-up, 92% of the gamblers allocated to individual treatment compared with 60% allocated to group treatment no longer satisfied the diagnostic criteria for pathological gambling. These findings suggest that some caution should be employed when delivering cognitive-behavioural treatment in a group format until further research is conducted to establish its efficacy.     

Association of pathological gambling with depression in Scotland

Is most research concerning gambling and depression has been conducted on clinical populations, the present study examined the relationship between gambling and depression across a large sample in Scotland in higher education and the community. A questionnaire-based cluster design involved the distribution of the South Oaks Gambling Screen and the Centre for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale mainly to students and staff of higher educational establishments, with small community and gambling samples also included. Thirty-seven colleges and universities across Scotland participated in the research, with a sample of 2259 people aged sixteen years of age or over (M = 28.9 yr., SD = 13.4) being obtained. It was found that past-year probable pathological gamblers had significantly higher depression than problem gamblers, nonproblem gamblers, and nongamblers. However, when probable pathological gamblers who had sought treatment were omitted from the analysis, the nontreatment-seeking probable pathological gambling group no longer had significantly higher depression than the problem gambling group. Female problem and probable pathological gamblers had particularly high depressive symptomatology, suggesting co-morbid depression may be a prominent feature of problematic female gambling.     

Disordered Gambling and Its Treatment

Pathological gambling is an increasing concern with the growth of legalized gambling opportunities, and clinicians who provide general psychotherapy, as well as those specializing in some disorders, are likely to encounter patients with gambling problems. This review article describes the diagnostic criteria for pathological gambling and screening methods for identifying individuals with gambling problems. Problem and pathological gambling are more likely to occur in certain populations, such as among individuals with substance use, mood and anxiety disorders, and medical problems. However, few pathological gamblers seek specialized gambling treatment. This paper reviews different forms of treatments that have been applied to gamblers, along with evidence of their efficacy. Clinical guidelines for identifying and treating gambling problems are outlined as well.     

Évolution du traitement attentionnel de l’information émotionnelle de joueurs pathologiques anxieux et non anxieux : une étude préliminaire

The aim of this study was to estimate, outside a context of game, the attentional behavior (selection and focus) of pathological gamblers in front of the emotional information, and in various stages of its treatment. More exactly, anxious pathological gamblers (14), not anxious pathological gamblers (10), anxious not gamblers (14) and not anxious not gamblers (15) were subjected to a task of selection spatial attentional (task modified by detection of probes, Mogg and Bradley, 2004) and in a task of focus attentional (task of distractors, Fox, 1993, Fox, 1996). The results reveal an effect combined by the pathological gambling and by the anxiety Trait, on the processing of emotional information, in the first stages of its treatment (subliminal condition and automatic).     

Cognitive-behavioural treatment of pathological gambling in individuals with chronic schizophrenia: a pilot study

The current study aimed to test the clinical effectiveness of a cognitive-behavioural program (CBT) specifically adapted for pathological gamblers with chronic schizophrenia, carried out in a naturalistic setting of community Mental Health Centres. Forty-four pathological gamblers with chronic schizophrenia were assigned either to a standard drug therapy for schizophrenia (control group) or to cognitive-behavioural therapy for pathological gambling plus a standard drug therapy for schizophrenia (experimental group). Psychological treatment comprised a 20-session program including psychoeducation, stimulus control, gradual exposure and relapse prevention. Therapeutic success was defined as abstinence or the occurrence of only 1 or 2 episodes of gambling during the follow-up period. While the patients treated in the experimental group showed a rate of success of 73.9%, only 19% of the participants belonging to the control group gave up gambling at the 3-month follow-up. The CBT group also did better than the control group in the number of gambling episodes and in the amount of money spent on gambling. However, the improvement of the experimental group was weaker at the 6- and 12-month follow-up. These findings support the beneficial effects of CBT as adjunctive therapy for patients with dual diagnoses (schizophrenia and pathological gambling).     

Discounting of probabilistic rewards is associated with gambling abstinence in treatment-seeking pathological gamblers

Individuals with addictive disorders, including substance abusers and pathological gamblers, discount or devalue rewards delayed in time more than controls. Theoretically, preference for probabilistic rewards is directly related to gambling, but limited empirical research has examined probabilistic discounting in individuals with pathological gambling. This study evaluated probability and delay discounting in treatment-seeking pathological gamblers and their association with gambling treatment outcomes during and after treatment. At time of treatment entry, 226 pathological gamblers completed probability and delay discounting tasks. They were then randomized to one of three treatment conditions, and gambling behavior was measured throughout treatment and at a 1-year follow-up assessment. After controlling for possibly confounding variables and treatment condition, more shallow probability discounting was associated with greater reductions in amounts wagered during treatment and likelihood of gambling abstinence at the end of treatment and throughout the follow-up period. No associations were noted between delay discounting and gambling treatment outcomes. These data suggest that probability discounting may be an important construct in understanding pathological gambling and its treatment.     

Measurement and structure of pathological gambling behavior

The serious effects of pathological gambling on both gamblers and their families warrants research on the disorder. This study aimed at identifying components of pathological gambling with the goal of developing methods for early detection and preventive strategies. A factor analysis of behaviors hypothesized to relate to pathological gambling resulted in a multidimensional model of the disorder. Eight factors were identified, including distinct neurotic, psychopathic, and impulsive components, and used in a comparative analysis of 83 admitted compulsive gamblers and 61 nongamblers. Five of the factors differentiated the two groups even when sex, age, and education were controlled. Implications of these findings are discussed.     

Expertise and gambling: Using Type 2 signal detection theory to investigate differences between regular gamblers and nongamblers

This paper presents an experimental investigation into how individuals make decisions under uncertainty when faced with different payout structures in the context of gambling. Type 2 signal detection theory was utilized to compare sensitivity to bias manipulations between regular nonproblem gamblers and nongamblers in a novel probability-based gambling task. The results indicated that both regular gamblers and nongamblers responded to the changes of rewards for correct responses (Experiment 1) and penalties for errors (Experiment 2) in setting their gambling criteria, but that regular gamblers were more sensitive to these manipulations of bias. Regular gamblers also set gambling criteria that were more optimal. The results are discussed in terms of an expertise-transference hypothesis.     

Expertise and gambling: using type 2 signal detection theory to investigate differences between regular gamblers and nongamblers

This paper presents an experimental investigation into how individuals make decisions under uncertainty when faced with different payout structures in the context of gambling. Type 2 signal detection theory was utilized to compare sensitivity to bias manipulations between regular nonproblem gamblers and nongamblers in a novel probability-based gambling task. The results indicated that both regular gamblers and nongamblers responded to the changes of rewards for correct responses (Experiment 1) and penalties for errors (Experiment 2) in setting their gambling criteria, but that regular gamblers were more sensitive to these manipulations of bias. Regular gamblers also set gambling criteria that were more optimal. The results are discussed in terms of an expertise-transference hypothesis.     

Underlying Cognitions in Gambling Behavior Among University Students1

Differences in underlying cognitions across gambling tasks were examined. The South Oaks Gambling Screen, a measure of pathological gambling, was completed by 60 undergraduate students. They also played computer‐simulated games of roulette, slots, and blackjack in a laboratory setting. The “think‐aloud” procedure was used to reveal subjects' cognitions, which were subsequently categorized into cognitive heuristics. Individuals were classified as social gamblers with and without problems and probable pathological gamblers. Results reveal that certain heuristics, including references to an explanation of their losses, hindsight bias, personification of the dealer/machine, chasing behavior, and past experiences were most frequently endorsed by probable pathological gamblers. Empirical evidence supports that probable pathological gamblers are qualitatively different from social gamblers in their emitted verbalized cognitive heuristics.     

Pathological gambling and suicidality: an analysis of severity and lethality

Pathological gambling represents a major public health issue. Risk factors for suicide such as major depression, substance abuse, marital breakdown, unemployment, financial crises, and legal difficulties are commonly found in populations of pathological gamblers. The objective of this study was to systematically investigate the nature of suicidal behavior among treatment-seeking pathological gamblers and its relationship to gambling characteristics and depression. Indices of suicidality were assessed in a sample of 85 treatment-seeking diagnosed pathological gamblers. High rates of suicidal ideation, suicidal plans, and attempts were found; however, no clear relationship was observed between suicidality and indices of gambling behavior. Depression rather than gambling specific characteristics, marital difficulties, or the presence of illegal behaviors appear to be related to the risk of suicidality.     

Group therapy for pathological gamblers: a cognitive approach

This study evaluated the efficacy of a group cognitive treatment for pathological gambling. Gamblers, meeting DSM-IV criteria for pathological gambling, were randomly assigned to treatment (N=34) or wait-list control (N=24) conditions. Cognitive correction techniques were used first to target gamblers' erroneous perceptions about randomness, and then to address issues of relapse prevention. The dependent measures used were the DSM-IV criteria for pathological gambling, perceived self-efficacy, gamblers' perception of control, desire to gamble, and frequency of gambling. Post-treatment results indicated that 88% of the treated gamblers no longer met the DSM-IV criteria for pathological gambling compared to only 20% in the control group. Similar changes were observed on all outcome measures. Analysis of data from 6-, 12- and 24-month follow-ups revealed maintenance of therapeutic gains. Recommendations for group interventions are discussed, focusing on the cognitive correction of erroneous perceptions toward the notion of randomness.     

Psychobiology of the near-miss in fruit machine gambling

Explanations involving the etiology of pathological gambling have tended to emphasize psychosocial factors. However, the possibility that psychobiological factors may be important in the development of pathological gambling behavior should not be ruled out. Psychobiological approaches are becoming ever more prominent with the three main lines of research being (a) a search for a physiological disposition and/or underlying biological substrate in pathological gamblers, (b) an examination of the role of arousal in gambling, and (c) speculation about endorphin-related explanations. The data from questionnaires and interviews with fruit machine gamblers suggest that both physiological and cognitive factors (e.g., the psychology of the near-miss) may be important in the explanation of excessive fruit machine gambling. Thus, if a gambler becomes physiologically aroused when he or she wins or nearly wins, it will stimulate further play, here termed the psychobiology of the near-miss.