Evolution,depression and counselling

In this paper a framework of evolutionary psychology is used to develop a model of depression. In this model depression is seen as not normally a biochemical illness or disorder, but instead as usually due to the person becoming trapped within a psychologically activated but unwanted and inappropriate suite of natural emotions, with the activation coming from a perception of a major decline in personal usefulness that can include failure, guilt, shame or perceived rejection. A neuropsychological observation that supports this model is described. The implications of the model for counselling with depressed clients are outlined in terms of a multi-dimensional approach, oriented around perceived usefulness. It is predicted that clients receiving such counselling will recover more rapidly and be less likely to suffer a relapse than those receiving just drugs or a form of counselling that covers fewer dimensions.     

Counselling psychology’s genotypic and phenotypic features across national boundaries

This article integrates the survey results presented in the introductory article of this journal issue as well as the articles describing counselling psychology in each of the countries covered in the issue to examine the international character of counselling psychology. Specifically, it addresses the similarities and differences in the histories, education and training, demographics, and practice characteristics of the specialty within and across these national boundaries. The article concludes with an analysis of the value dimensions describing the international character of counselling psychology and addresses where the different countries place themselves along the two dimensions that were identified: Dimension 1 capturing basic research as different from most of the other values, and Dimension 2 being defined by an applied client focus versus a more indirect clinical perspective (i.e. social justice and research adding to the knowledge base).     

Client attachment and the working alliance

The relationship between four dimensions of client attachment (secure, preoccupied, fearful, and dismissing) and client ratings of four dimensions of the working alliance (goals, tasks, bonds, and global) was examined in a sample of first-time clients (n = 63) seeking services through a university-based counselling clinic. Significant relationships were found between secure and fearful attachment and the bond component of the Working Alliance Inventory (WAI). Secure attachment was also significantly associated with the WAI goals subscale as well as global WAI ratings. Implications of these findings for counselling practice and future research are discussed.     

The Role of Differentiation of Self and Dyadic Adjustment in Predicting Codependency

Working within the framework of the Bowen’s Family Systems Theory and using data from 318 non-clinical participants, the present study assessed a model in which codependent behaviors were predicted by dyadic adjustment in couple relationships and differentiation of self. Results indicated that the dimensions of differentiation of self (I-position, emotional reactivity, emotional cutoff, fusion with others) were more important in explaining the codependent behavior compared to the dimensions of dyadic adjustment (dyadic satisfaction, cohesion, consensus, affective expression). These results suggest the importance of considering the dynamics and outcomes of the process of differentiation of self both in research and in counselling and clinical practice with individuals, couples, and families.     

Calculating savings to the nation from counselling services: Methodological challenges

The research endeavoured to develop and pilot a system to demonstrate savings to the nation resulting from counselling provided by a national voluntary agency. This paper demonstrates the methodological challenges encountered. A questionnaire was developed, focused on four broad dimensions of clients’ lives: Employment & Income, Health, Personal & Social, and Children. The questionnaire was piloted by eight counselling centres, and applied pre‐ and post‐intervention. It proved not always possible to attribute clear savings within the dimensions measured. Direct health‐related costs and sick days off work were relatively straightforward. However, for less tangible factors, e.g. personal and social, and children, it was not possible to attribute direct financial amounts to any improvements. The pilot, therefore, attributed savings where possible. Attrition was a major difficulty, with 976 pre‐intervention questionnaires reducing to only 159 post‐intervention. This paper indicates the challenges of estimating savings to the nation from counselling interventions, and illustrates a flexible flowchart which allows savings and costs to be attributed as and when available. Although no final calculations of savings to the nation are included, it is believed that the learning from the methodological challenges encountered should be useful to other services wishing to assess the financial costs and savings of psychological therapies and counselling.     

Ripples in the pond: A qualitative study of graduates' perceptions of the impact of counselling training upon their work within the core professions

A small-scale qualitative study was conducted in order to examine the value of counselling training when incorporated into a person's established professional role. Questionnaires were sent to graduates from an MA/diploma in counselling course in order to identify those who had continued working within their core profession. This was followed by in-depth exploration of the issues through a focus group and interviews. Twelve respondents, from a variety of work settings, took part in this second stage. Results indicated that counselling training had impacted on all aspects of their work role and that there can be a benefit of such training in the workplace. Participants developed a tripartite understanding with regard to the self, clients and the organization, and change was experienced in each of these three dimensions. A larger-scale study, among graduates from a number of courses and also among employers, is indicated.     

The Coping quadrant: working with and against depression

This paper presents a model of coping that intersects the emotion and social dimensions of depression. It demonstrates the dynamic socio-emotion interplay and modulation of affect in response to our environment, specifically in relationship to others. Humans can be socially disconnected but emotionally repleted, or socially connected but emotionally depleted, but those who are depressed are more likely to be socially disconnected and emotionally depleted. Conversely, those who are socially connected and emotionally repleted are more likely to employ adaptive coping skills to alleviate emotional distress. When applied to counselling sessions, the model helps to explain client and counsellor dissatisfaction with the process and outcome of the interaction. The model is designed to increase awareness of emotion regulation and to enhance coping skills by offering a practical approach to managing socio-emotion response to the vicissitudes of life.     

Making a difference for young people with learning disabilities: A model for inclusive counselling practice

The prevalence of mental health problems in young people with learning disabilities and the disability rights movement provide the background to this paper. The aims are to investigate the inclusivity of counselling; gain insight into inclusive practices; and put forward a model for inclusive counselling practice. Mixed methodology provides quantitative and qualitative data through a survey of counsellors (n = 396) and a series of semi‐structured interviews (n = 15). The results produce six indicators of inclusive counselling, which are used to build a model for inclusive counselling practice: proactive approach to inclusion; focus on building relationships; operationalising equal opportunities policies; inclusive initial assessments; adopting flexible and creative approaches to counselling; and training and awareness raising. The implications for research and practice are to acknowledge the exclusive nature of the profession and address the issue of inclusion through training, professional development and further research in the field. The model for inclusive counselling practice is put forward as a tool for auditing existing counselling provision and as guidance for counsellors and policy makers in increasing inclustion of young people with learning disabilities in mainstream counselling.     

Towards a social model approach to counselling disabled clients

The social model of disability has emerged over the past 30 years in Britain to challenge the dominant individual, particularly medical and tragedy, models. This social model is borne from the experiences of disabled people and essentially defines disability as the discrimination faced by people with impairments. This paper explores the possible conflicts between some counselling approaches that can individualise and personalise problems and disability as a political issue. Drawing on research with counsellors and disabled clients, we illustrate the social construction of disability as an individualised problem within the counselling process. Considering the implications for counselling practice, we argue for an approach to counselling which recognises the social model of disability as the basis for social change.     

Oppression within the counselling room

This paper suggests that the oppression experienced by disabled people in society is sometimes replayed in the counselling room by counsellors who are unaware of their own disablist attitudes and prejudices. Whilst the provision of Disability Equality Training (DET) within counselling courses would ameliorate the problem, I believe that disabled people would be most empowered by a counselling approach which recognises the potential for oppression within the counsellor‐client relationship. One solution may be the creation of a new counselling approach (disability counselling) which includes the social model of disability as one of the foundations. An alternative solution may be found within the emerging counselling approaches that treat counselling as a social and political process and place emphasis on developing comprehensive anti‐discriminatory practice.     

Applying the principles and techniques of solution-focused therapy to career counselling

Career counselling aims to help clients become more effective agents in solving problems in their vocational aspects of life. To achieve this goal, theorists and practitioners are called upon to form useful helping approaches that can help clients in a more efficient and effective manner. This article proposes an alternative model toward this end by considering and adopting principles and techniques from the solution-focused therapy in career counselling practice. After a very brief introduction of the basic features of the solution-focused counselling, the paper reviews some key theoretical principles of the solution-focused therapy, and connects these principles to career counselling context. It then illustrates several solution-focused counselling techniques that are particularly applicable to career counselling intervention.     

A peocess model of ethnocultural counselling for African survivors of organized violence

By analysing some 500 counselling and psychotherapy cases of survivors of organized violence as a therapist and supervisor over ten years the author developed a heuristic framework for a process model of ethnocultural counselling considering: (1) African counsellor's indigenous concepts, (2) a WHO-UNHCR approach, (3) a heuristic approach to psychotherapy, (4) a constructive narrative perspective, (5) an ethnopsychotherapeutic approach, and (6) a counselling approach for lay counsellors. The counselling process model comprises the following components: (1) Establishing a counselling relationship and motivation for change; (2) defining the problem, explanatory models, goals, and finding interventional means; (3) social comparison, cognitive undoing, metaphors, shared experiences and relaxation techniques; (4) working through the trauma, testimony approach; (5) ritualistic, cognitive and supportive approaches; (6) principle of education and advice; (7) evaluating and revizing treatment and stabilizing behaviour. These seven counselling components are described and counselling case examples are provided from Sudanese refugees in a large camp in Uganda and Malawian torture survivors in Malawi.     

The Social Psychology of Counselling and Psychotherapy: A Base for Integration

The use of interpersonal influence theory as an integrative model for counselling is described. This model relies heavily on theory and research in social psychology in particular, interpersonal power and attitude change. The use of constructs derived from the model is discussed for the three phases of the counselling relationship. Implications of the model for training are outlined.     

Psychological type and counselling psychology trainees’ choice of counselling orientation

Clarifying the factors which influence choice of counselling orientation is important. This study investigated whether psychological type is associated with choice of orientation in counselling psychology trainees. Sets of questionnaires were sent to 210 counselling psychology trainees in four universities, which resulted in a sample of 84 participants. The measures were the Keirsey Temperament Sorter II and a short demographic questionnaire which also asked open-ended questions about chosen orientation. Participants who preferred SJ (Sensing-Judging) were more likely to choose the CBT model, NFJ (Intuition-Feeling-Judging) types the Psychodynamic model and NFPs (Intuition-Feeling-Perceiving) the Person-Centred model.     

The professional identity of counselling psychologists in health care: a review and call for research

Despite (a) anecdotal evidence which suggests that it is possible to be a counselling psychologist in non-traditional settings, and (b) the potential integration of counselling psychology foci with the medical model, there has been some discussion about whether counselling psychologists who practice in health care settings might experience a change in their professional identity. Professional identity is defined here as a sense of connection to the values and emphases of counselling psychology. The retention of professional identity seems important for counselling psychologists in health care settings. This is considering that the application of counselling psychology principles has the potential to make their contributions unique among mental health professionals in the health care arena. Here, the authors describe the evolution of ‘counselling health psychology’ and address issues of professional identity. Limitations of existing literature are examined. Recommendations for future research are also made.     

Measuring counsellor theoretical orientation

Previous studies of counsellors' and psychotherapists' theoretical orientations have suggested the importance of two superordinate dimensions of beliefs about therapeutic practice: an analytical-experiential dimension and an objective-subjective dimension. A 40-item measure was developed which tapped both these. A study involving 132 counsellors found evidence that the Counsellor Theoretical Position Scale is a reliable and valid measure of important aspects of theoretical orientation to counselling practice.     

Reviewing psychologists' qualifications for career development practice in Australia

Vocational psychology and the practice of career development are important dimensions of the psychology discipline and profession. This paper contains an overview of Australian career development practice in light of recent trends, particularly the formalisation of career development practice among professions other than psychologists. Given the advent of professional standards for Australian career development practitioners, a review of postgraduate degrees in organisational, developmental and educational, and counselling psychology was conducted to determine their correspondence with the competencies presented in the Standards. The review found significant consistency with generic competencies. Degrees in organisational psychology provided the broadest correspondence, while degrees in counselling, developmental and educational psychology had lower levels of correspondence on specific competencies. The implications of the review are discussed in light of the evolution of the career development industry and psychologists' standing in this field.     

A Study of the Effects of Different Frames of Reference on FIRO-B Scores

The purpose of this study was to investigate possible differences in FIRO-B scores in relation to two frames of reference: 'home' and 'work'. The test was administered to thirty postgraduate students on two separate occasions. Subsequent analysis showed scores on five of the six dimensions to be significantly different. It is suggested that these results have implications for the reliability of the test, and also for its use in guidance and counselling.     

Metatherapeutic communication: an exploratory analysis of therapist-reported moments of dialogue regarding the nature of the therapeutic work

The purpose of the study was to investigate the nature of metatherapeutic communication (MTC), defined as dialogue between therapists and clients on the nature of the therapeutic work and the means by which it can be of greatest help to clients. Twelve counselling psychologists, working pluralistically with 35 clients experiencing depression, described on post-session forms moments of negotiation and collaboration around the therapeutic work. Two main dimensions of MTC were identified: the subject matter of the MTC and the temporal focus of the MTC. In addition, MTC varied by the time at which it took place. These findings provide a framework for understanding the nature of MTC in counselling and psychotherapy, and the opportunities for implementing it in practice.     

Parental perceptions of sibling differences: towards a theory of sibling differentiation

A hypothesis of 'triadic and tetradic projective identification' is derived from work with nine cases in which family therapy was followed by psychodynamic counselling with the mother. It is suggested, first, that the dimensions of personality in which a parent perceives considerable difference between siblings may be linked to earlier traumatic issues experienced by that parent, especially in the family of origin; and, second, that siblings may identify with their parents' perceptions of difference, leading to differential development.
Case material is used to illustrate the ideas and a small pilot study of six different families is described, which tests a key element of the hypothesis - that personality dimensions in which a parent perceives most difference between siblings will relate more strongly to parental problem areas than dimensions in which a parent perceives least difference between siblings.
Findings give preliminary support to the hypothesis and proposals for further work are presented.