Examining the Dynamics of the Implicit and the Explicit Self-Concept in Social Anxiety: Changes in the Implicit Association Test–Anxiety and the Social Phobia Anxiety Inventory Following Treatment

Data from the first two childhood memories was used to distinguish 15 delinquents from 18 nondelinquent controls. Subjects were male, middle class, 15-17 years of age, and equated for verbal IQ. All delinquents were property offenders. A coding system, devised from the memories of the delinquents and nondelinquents, successfully identified 80% of the delinquents and 100% of the nondelinquents. These prediction rates exceeded those from three clinicians experienced in working with a comparable delinquent population The coding system was then discussed in terms of the axioms and presuppositions which are suggested by the memories of the delinquent sample.     

Punishments adolescents find justified: an examination of altitudes toward delinquency

The purpose of this study was to examine adolescents' attitudes toward delinquency, specifically the degree to which they find norm violations acceptable in various circumstances. A total of 1,914 Dutch youths participated: 1,046 reported having committed no crimes in the past year, 578 reported having committed only nonviolent offenses, and 290 reported having committed both violent and nonviolent offenses. It was hypothesized that, in general, delinquents would prescribe less severe punishments for deviant behavior, irrespective of the circumstances. This hypothesis was rejected. It was found, however, that violent delinquents were significantly more tolerant of violent behavior as compared with nondelinquents, with one important exception: when injury was inflicted on someone they knew, they were as little inclined to excuse the perpetrator as were nondelinquents. Violent delinquents discriminated most strongly between friends and strangers as both victims and perpetrators.     

Adolescence-limited versus persistent delinquency: extending Moffitt's hypothesis into adulthood.

The authors examined how neuropsychological, personality, and environmental risk factors and their interactions were related to trajectories of delinquent behavior from adolescence to adulthood. Four waves of longitudinal data from 698 male participants, ages 12-18 at Time 1 and ages 25-31 at Time 4, were included in the analyses. Using a growth mixture model approach, 4 trajectories were identified: nondelinquents, adolescence-limited delinquents, adolescence-to-adulthood-persistent delinquents, and escalating delinquents. Five risk factors distinguished escalating from persistent delinquents and 5 also distinguished nondelinquents from the 3 delinquency trajectories. Persistent delinquents scored significantly higher than adolescence-limited delinquents on only one risk factor, disinhibition. Overall, few of the factors that are related to childhood-to-adolescence persistence were associated with persistence in delinquency beyond adolescence.     

Self-Reported Delinquency,neuropsychological deficit,and history of attention deficit disorder

This study was designed to evaluate the possibility that a pattern of cognitive deficit is associated with delinquent behavior, while avoiding some of the methodological problems of previous research. The Self- Report Early Delinquency instrument and a research battery of neuropsychological tests were administered blindly to an unselected cohort of 678 13- year- olds. Because the diagnosis of attention deficit disorder (ADD) was found at markedly elevated rates in the backgrounds of these delinquents, the possibility was examined that the neuropsychological deficits of delinquents might be limited to delinquents with histories of ADD. Although delinquents with past ADD were more cognitively impaired than non-ADD delinquents, both groups scored significantly below nondelinquents on verbal, visuospatial, and visualmotor integration skills. In addition, ADD delinquents scored poorly on memory abilities. Subjects with ADD who had not developed delinquent behavior were not as cognitively impaired as ADD delinquents, suggesting that it is the specific comorbidity of ADD and delinquency that bears neuropsychological study.This work was supported by USPHS Grant 1 R23 MH-42723-01 from the Antisocial and Violent Behavior Branch of the National Institute of Mental Health. The Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Research Unit is supported by the Medical Research Council of New Zealand. Appreciation is expressed for the methodological advice of Prof. Sarnoff A. Mednick, and for the data collection efforts of Mrs. Pat Brasch, Mrs. Kathleen Campbell, Mr. Rich Poulton, and the psychometrists who administered the WISC-R.     

Future orientation of institutionalized and noninstitutionalized delinquents and nondelinquents

The present study is an analysis of the relationship between delinquency, institutionalization and future orientation, based on a social-learning theoretical framework. Two hundred and forty male adolescents (institutionalized and noninstitutionalized delinquents and nondelinquents) answered open and structured questions concerning their anticipations and evaluations of the future. The data were analysed by analyses of variance and t-tests and partly confirm the hypotheses: Delinquents structure their future in a less differentiated, less extended, and more internal way than nondelinquents. This was especially true for the institutionalized delinquents. However, delinquents structured their fears concerning their personal development more extensively than nondelinquents. Future orientation varied according to the length of institutionalization in different domains of life. These results do not support the dominant assumption of the literature that delinquents have an unrealistic future orientation. Rather, it is shown here that institutionalized delinquents anticipate rather negative future events which they expect to occur shortly after the time of their release. However, the present results have to be cautiously interpreted on account of the special selection of the sample and the rather short duration of institutionalization. Also, the method of a differentiated measurement of future orientation used here is hardly practiced in the literature though such a conceptualization as a multidimensional construct seems to be theoretically fruitful.     

Affective empathy and cognitive role-taking in delinquent and nondelinquent youth

Ten male and 10 female delinquents were compared with 10 male and 10 female nondelinquents on a structured self-reported affective empathy task, an unstructured affective empathy task, and a cognitive role-taking measure. Differences between groups were found only on the unstructured empathy task, with delinquents performing more poorly than nondelinquents. Sex differences were noted in the delinquent sample on the structured empathy task, with males demonstrating less empathic responding than females. The role of empathic skills in the etiology of delinquent behavior is addressed. In addition, the need to further differentiate the cognitive and affective components of the empathic construct is emphasized.     

The relationship between adolescent attitudes towards authority, self-concept, and delinquency

Attitudes towards authority of youth and adults have been investigated in recent years in a number of Western countries. The present research focused on attitudes towards institutional authority among three groups of adolescents: nondelinquents, noninstitutionalized delinquents, and institutionalized delinquents. Relationships with self-concept were also investigated. It was found that attitudes towards parents, teachers, police, and the law were, in general, positive. Nondelinquents' attitudes were more positive than those of delinquents.     

Earliest memories and the dynamics of delinquency: a replication study

A previous study of early childhood memories (EMs) with a sample of 15 delinquents and 18 nondelinquent controls successfully identified 80% of the delinquents and 100% of the nondelinquents. Our study used 71 delinquents and 71 nondelinquent controls matched for age, whereas gender (male) and geographical area were held constant. Socioeconomic status (SES) was restricted to middle class and above. Several refinements were also made to the previous EM scoring system to make it more useful to clinicians, and four EMs were elicited rather than two in the prior study. Predictive results with a discriminant analysis were consistent with those from the previous study and were highly significant--81.7% were correctly classified as delinquents and 95.8% as nondelinquents. The study effectively validates the use of the EM scoring system for this population. The results are discussed from the standpoint of the Cognitive-Perceptual approach to EMs and current models of delinquency.     

Earliest Memories and the Dynamics of Delinquency: A Replication Study

A previous study of early childhood memories (EMS) with a sample of 15 delinquents and 18 nondelinquent controls successfully identified 80% of the delinquents and 100% of the nondelinquents. Our study used 71 delinquents and 71 nondelinquent controls matched for age, whereas gender (male) and geographical area were held constant. Socioeconomic status (SES) was restricted to middle class and above. Several refinements were also made to the previous EM scoring system to make it more useful to clinicians, and four EMS were elicited rather than two in the prior study. Predictive results with a discriminant analysis were consistent with those from the previous study and were highly significant-81.7% were correctly classified as delinquents and 95.8% as nondelinquents. The study effectively validates the use of the EM scoring system for this population. The results are discussed from the standpoint of the Cognitive-Perceptual approach to EMS and current models of delinquency.     

Personality and antisocial behavior in children and adolescents: An enquiry into Eysenck's and Gray's theories

Two studies were conducted to test the hypotheses derived from Eysenck's and Gray's theories of personality regarding antisocial behavior. For this purpose the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (Junior) (EPQ-Junior) and a card task aimed at measuring sensitivity to reward were used in each of the studies. The first study compared a group of juvenile delinquents with a group of nondelinquents and the second study compared a group of severely conduct-disordered children with a group of normal children. The results did not support Eysenck's claim that delinquents score higher than their normal counterparts on extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism. Some support was found for the hypothesis derived from Gray's theory: Children and adolescents with severe antisocial behavior were more sensitive to rewards than their normal counterparts.     

Attention deficit hyperactivty disorder in Korean juvenile delinquents

This study was conducted to identify attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in Korean juvenile delinquents. Intelligence tests (KEDI-WISC, K-WAIS), the Test of Variables of Attention (TOVA), the Teacher Report Form (TRF), the Youth Self-Report (YSR), and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale were administered to 98 incarcerated Korean adolescents (the delinquent group) and 84 adolescent nondelinquents (the control group). The groups were compared, and significant differences were found for ADHD; 42.4% of the adolescents in the delinquent group were identified as having ADHD, in comparison to 11.9% of the adolescents in the control group. Delinquent adolescents and adolescents with ADHD were found to have lower IQ scores, poorer TOVA performance, more severe problem behaviors, and lower self-esteem than nondelinquent adolescents and adolescents without ADHD. Delinquent adolescents with ADHD consistently fared the worst on assessments of intelligence, TOVA performance, problem behaviors, and self-esteem.     

Antisocial and prosocial behavior among contemporary Robin Hoods

Sensation-seeking and related personality traits have been linked to both dedliquency and helping behavior. This suggests that certain stimulus-need characteristics are capable of producing both antisocial and prosocial behavior in the same individual. Forty-nine eigth-grade students in a midwest parochial school completed the Junior Eysenck Personality Inventory, the Sensation Seeking Scale (SSS) and a Deliquency Self-report Form. They were placed into either a low- or a high-stimulus condition, tested for a anxiety and sensation-seeking states and a given request to volunteer.As predicted, Deliquency scores were significantly related to the incidencee of volunteering. Volunteers and delinquents, especially drug users, had significantly higher SSS scores than nonvolunteers and nondelinquents. The high-stimulus condition also had a significantly higher proportion of volunteers. Other relationships were found between N and Anxiety, and E and SSS scores,. Results are discussed in terms of interaction of personality characteristics with stimulus conditions, the ‘Robin Hood Syndrome’ and treatment implications.     

Female adolescent friendship and delinquent behavior

Young female offenders (n = 29) and female high school students (n = 47) were compared in terms of delinquent behavior and relationships with their best female friend and peer group. Young offenders exhibited significantly more delinquent behavior than did high school students in the past year. Delinquents and nondelinquents did not significantly differ in amount of companionship, conflict, help, security, and closeness with their best female friend, and amount of trust, alienation, and perceived intimacy in their peer group. Less communication and more perceived peer pressure in the peer group distinguished delinquent females from nondelinquent females. Perceived peer pressure significantly predicted delinquent behavior in female adolescents. In short, friendships of delinquent and nondelinquent female adolescents are essentially similar despite higher levels of peer pressure among delinquents.     

Verbal Problem Solving in Families of Father-Absent and Father-Present Delinquent Boys

An observational method was used to investigate the relationship of juvenile delinquency and father absence to family problem-solving communicatian. Subjects included 18 intact (mother- father-son) and 18 father-absent (mother-son) families. In support of recent programs that have used probIem-solving interventions with families of deviant adolescents, the results indicated that adolescent delinquency was associated with lower rates of maternal problem solving. Members of families with delinquents also showed less emotional warmth, but not more conflict or attitudinal differences, than members of families with nondelinquents. Father-absence was associated with higher rates of maternal and adolescent problem solving. The theoretical and clinical implications of these findings are discussed.     

The effects of word class on children's reading and spelling

Children's oral language functioning has been shown to be affected by word class (i.e., content vs. noncontent words). The present study reveals comparable effects on children's written language performance. In spelling and reading, third and fifth graders show faster and more accurate responses to nouns and verbs than to noncontent words of matched length and frequency. Further, when the children's performance is examined in relation to level of reading skill, it is found that the less-skilled readers exhibit a greater content/noncontent differential than do the more skilled readers. The results are discussed with reference to differential access for the two word classes and its implication for both oral and written language functioning.     

Development of a microcomputer system for verbal interaction analysis

Verbal interaction analysis has been demonstrated to be a valuable procedure for research on temporal, noncontent variables in dyadic interviews. Temporal variables include durations of utterance, reaction time latency, initiative time latency, and overlap, which are recorded for both parties in the interview. Instruments for the measurement of these variables have been both complex and expensive. An Apple II microcomputer is programmed to record the four temporal variables in verbal interaction analysis, providing a portable, less expensive, and convenient instrument.     

Effective group work with delinquents in Hong Kong

The principle of matching services to needs suggests that group work would be most effective when it targets those most in need of the services--delinquents with low involvement with the family and high involvement with friends. Less time with the family indicates a greater need for conventional social control, while more time with friends may entail a greater need for learning social skills in order to resist delinquent peer influences. To address these needs, developmental group work is appropriate for delinquents identified by social workers. The effectiveness of services tend to be contingent upon the delinquents' relationship with family and friends. To test this hypothesis, the present study collected data from 190 delinquents in Hong Kong. It was found that developmental group activities were beneficial to delinquents who spent less time with family and/or more time with friends. For delinquents in general, developmental group activities were helpful in diminishing delinquency. Moreover, the help was significantly greater for delinquents who spent more time with friends.     

Intellectual profiles and violent behavior in juvenile delinquents

Hemispheric laterality, measured by the Wechsler Verbal IQ-Performance IQ differential score, in a large group of delinquents (N = 101) was not associated with violent-nonviolent behavior. Delinquents were, however, likely to be relatively more impaired on verbal than on nonverbal intellectual capacities.     

Intellectual Profiles and Violent Behavior in Juvenile Delinquents

Hemispheric laterality, measured by the Wechsler Verbal IQ-Performance IQ differential score, in a large group of delinquents (N = 101) was not associated with violent-nonviolent behavior. Delinquents were, however, likely to be relatively more impaired on verbal than on nonverbal intellectual capacities.     

The reaction of adolescent offenders and nonoffenders to nonverbal emotion displays

Adolescent male offenders and nonoffenders were compared on two tasks designed to assess reactions to the nonverbal emotion expressions of others. It was found that the offender group was less accurate in labeling another's emotion states but that this difference was apparently a function of verbal intelligence. Further, the remits of the second task, a task not related to verbal intelligence, indicated that the punitive decisions of both the offender and nonoffender groups were similarly affected by the actors' nonverbal emotions. These results were discussed as indicating that much of the social insensitivity often ascribed to delinquents may simply be a result of impoverished verbal skills among this group. A deficit in verbal skills may preclude delinquents from adequately describing their perceptions of the emotional reactions of others and it may also necessitate a nonverbal, rather than verbal, reaction to others' emotions.This study was supported by grant MH25889, National Institute for Mental Health, Center for Studies of Crime and Delinquency. All statements contained in this report are the opinions of the authors and do not represent official opinions or attitudes of the granting agency. The authors wish to express their gratitude to Dr. Paul Aleksic, Mr. Virgil Brandt, and Mr. Richard Kramer for their assistance and advice.