Contexts as switchmen: The variable effects of formal and informal instructional strategies on student achievement

This study presents an exploratory theoretical framework that analyzes the extent by which the contexts of classroom instruction mediate the effects of instructional strategies on achievement. The study first presents the two main tasks that teachers face in classrooms-teaching, and controlling the social order. The study then elaborates on formal and informal instructional strategies that teachers use to manage these tasks. The main foci of the study is to show that the effects of these different instructional strategies on student achievements vary by grade level. The results suggest that the contexts of instruction determine the magnitude and direction of the effects of instructional strategies on achievement. Positive effects on student achievement appear when a functional congruence occurs between teachers' instructional strategies and the contexts wherein they are used. The analyses suggest that changes in the cognitive, social, and institutional contexts of classrooms may change the relative efficacy of specific instructional strategies. Consequently, researchers should pay more attention to the changes in the sociology of classrooms during students' school careers. This study was supported by a post-doctoral fellowship from the Fulbright Foundation and by a small research grant from The Spencer Foundation. My wholehearted appreciation is given to the support I received from the Foundations. I am especially grateful to Charles Bidwell from the University of Chicago, who encouraged me to pursue this study during my post-doctoral visit in 1994–95. Discussions with Benjamin Wright and his warm support have been more than essential. The hospitality and the academic environment at the NORC and the University of Chicago have done wonders to the fruition of ideas advanced in this study. Yechezkel Dar and Ruth Butler made suggestions to the improvement of this article. Daniel Shalem and Rivka Berman assisted with editorial as well as substantive comments. The reviewers ofSocial Psychology of Education insightfully suggested ways to improve the final version.     

The Instructional Characteristics of Inclusive Classes for Elementary Students with Severe Disabilities: An Exploratory Study

This exploratory study examined several instructional characteristics of elementary classrooms serving students with severe disabilities including the individuals who provided instruction to students, the instructional behaviors of these teachers, and grouping structures. The analysis focused on the impact of these variables on the academic responding of students and the extent to which they were the exclusive target of instruction by the various teachers. Observation data were collected on six students with severe disabilities participating in general elementary classrooms for reading or math, and at least one other subject area. The academic responding of students was similar across general education teachers, special education teachers, paraprofessionals, and peers; and the instructional behaviors of each of these groups of instructors was similar. Students had higher rates of academic responding during one-on-one and small group instruction, but they also were engaged in instructional tasks during whole class instruction. Finally, academic responding was positively associated with instruction focused on the student, one-on-one instruction, and instructional interactions with teachers. Academic responding was negatively correlated with whole class instruction and instructional behaviors that were not directed at the student.     

Investigating Links from Teacher Knowledge,to Classroom Practice,to Student Learning in the Instructional System of the Middle-School Mathematics Classroom

Using data collected in 125 seventh-grade and 56 eighth-grade Texas classrooms in the context of the “Scaling Up SimCalc” research project in 2005–07, we examined relationships between teachers’ mathematics knowledge, teachers’ classroom decision making, and student achievement outcomes on topics of rate, proportionality, and linear function—three important and cognitively demanding prealgebra topics. We found that teachers’ mathematical knowledge was correlated with student achievement in only one study out of three. We also found a lack of correlations between teachers’ mathematical knowledge and critical aspects of instructional decision making. Curriculum and other learning resources (e.g., technology, student–student interactions) are clearly important factors for student learning in addition to, and in interaction with, teachers’ mathematical knowledge. Our results suggest that mathematics knowledge for teaching may have a nonlinear relationship with student learning, that those effects may be heavily mediated by other instructional factors, and that short-term content knowledge gains in teacher workshops may not persist in classroom instruction. We discuss a need in the field for richer models of how “mathematical knowledge for teaching” works in the context of complete instructional systems.     

Cooperativeness and achievement: Interaction of student cooperativeness with cooperative versus competitive classroom organization

The present study investigated two issues: the differential impact of various cooperative learning methods, and the interaction of student characteristics with learning methods. The subjects in the study were 864 second-through sixth-grade students in the elementary school classrooms of 32 student teachers. Teachers were randomly assigned to teach spelling by using one of three instructional modes: traditional whole-class instruction or one of two cooperative learning methods, Student Teams-Achievement Divisions (STAD) and Teams-Games-Tournaments (TGT). The results support two conclusions: First, substantial differences exist in the effects of various cooperative learning techniques; what are presumed to be minor variations in the techniques may have major impact. Second, cooperative-competitive social orientation and ethnic status interact with classroom structure to determine achievement gains. It appears that the relatively exclusive reliance on competitive and individualistic classroom structures in public schools biases important educational outcomes against individuals and minority groups who have a relatively cooperative social orientation.     

Using assessment to individualize early mathematics instruction

Accumulating evidence suggests that assessment-informed personalized instruction, tailored to students' individual skills and abilities, is more effective than more one-size-fits-all approaches. In this study, we evaluate the efficacy of Individualizing Student Instruction in Mathematics (ISI-Math) compared to Reading (ISI-Reading) where classrooms were randomly assigned to ISI-Math or ISI-Reading. The literature on child characteristics X instruction or skill X treatment interaction effects point to the complexities of tailoring instruction for individual students who present with constellations of skills. Second graders received mathematics instruction in small flexible learning groups based on their assessed learning needs. Results of the study (n = 32 teachers, 370 students) revealed significant treatment effects on standardized mathematics assessments. With effect sizes (d) of 0.41–0.60, we show that we can significantly improve 2nd graders' mathematics achievement, including for children living in poverty, by using assessment data to individualize the mathematics instruction they receive. The instructional regime, ISI-Math, was implemented by regular classroom teachers and it led to about a 4-month achievement advantage on standardized mathematics tests when compared to students in control classrooms. These results were realized within one school year. Moreover, treatment effects were the same regardless of school-level poverty and students' gender, initial mathematics or vocabulary scores.     

How Much Does Creative Teaching Enhance Elementary School Students' Achievement?

This study examined the relationship between creative teaching and elementary students' achievement gains. Forty‐eight upper elementary school teachers' classroom instruction was observed and evaluated over the course of 8 different lessons throughout the year. For each teacher, during each lesson, both a creative teaching frequency score and a quality score were derived. These scores were then used as predictor variables in a structural equation model to determine the magnitude of the relationship between creative teaching and classroom achievement gains in reading, language, and mathematics. Our results demonstrated that (a) the majority of teachers do not implement any teaching strategies that foster student creativity; (b) teachers who elicit student creativity turn out students that make substantial achievement gains; and (c) classrooms with high proportions of minority and low‐performing students receive significantly less creative teaching.     

IMPACT OF THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE TEACHING/LEARNING CYCLE ON TEACHER DECISION-MAKING AND EMERGENT READERS

No topic is on the minds of the general public, federal and state legislatures, parents, and educators more than the issue of establishing and maintaining school programs that are consistent in their ability to produce competent readers. Teachers, administrators, and teacher preparation programs are admonished to change programs, resources, monitoring procedures - whatever it takes to bring about this reformation of student reading achievement. Topics under investigation include effective models, methods, and strategies of instruction; essential teacher knowledge; teacher decision-making; and professional development of in-service and pre-service teachers. From this body of research the terms "balanced literacy" and "engaged literacy" have emerged. These terms are defined as emphasizing instruction on identified student need and including skills development as well as experience in a variety of texts. The teaching/learning cycle, a model for evaluating student reading behaviors and planning focused instruction, providesa foundation for the development of essential teacher knowledge and skills. As teachers articulate their understanding of the reading process, the characteristics of the learner, and the supports and challenges offered in text and teaching approaches, their practice is changed to make it more congruent with these stated beliefs. When teacher instructional practice is aligned with clear understandings and beliefs, student achievement increases. This study explored how knowledge and use of the teaching/learning cycle in beginning reading instruction impacts teacher decision-making and student achievement. While investigating teachers' knowledge and use of the teaching/learning cycle, two research questions focused on how student learning was affected and the impact of the changes on student/teacher interactions.     

A Family Literacy Intervention to Support Parents in Children's Early Literacy Learning

This study examines a family literacy intervention conducted in two first-grade classrooms with culturally diverse student populations. In the treatment and control classrooms, six parents and a classroom teacher learned practices for building home-school partnerships. Data were analyzed to determine changes in home-literacy practices, increases in parents' knowledge literacy instruction, and changes in children's literacy achievement. Data analyses demonstrated that participating parents showed significantly greater usage of effective storybook reading strategies before and after reading. Parental and teacher participation resulted in statistically significant differences in students' scores on the Concepts of Print assessment, compared to students in the control classroom.     

Teaching practices and the promotion of achievement and adjustment in first grade

The effects of teacher practices in promoting student academic achievement, behavioral adjustment, and feelings of competence were investigated in a prospective study of 257 children in 14 first grade classrooms. Using hierarchical linear modeling and regression techniques, observed teaching practices in the fall were explored as predictors of mean levels of student achievement, behavior, and self-perceived competence, as well as the percentage of students who met academic standards as measured in the spring. After controlling for child characteristics at school entry, in classrooms where teachers were observed to offer more instructional and social-emotional support (i.e., attending to students' interest and initiative, providing appropriately challenging learning opportunities, and creating positive social relationships), children on average acquired more math skills, made greater behavioral gains, and had more positive perceptions of their academic abilities. Further, a higher percentage of students in such classrooms met academic standards (two reading, one math). Implications for future research and educational practice are discussed.     

Classroom discourse and the distribution of student engagement

Research in the social psychology of achievement motivation stresses the contribution of the classroom motivational context to problems of student engagement among low achieving students. This analysis contributes to that literature through a focused analysis of English and language arts instruction during the middle school years. Using data from the Partnership for Literacy Study the author investigates the relationship between classroom evaluation during question and answer sessions and two forms of student engagement, participation in classroom discourse, and student effort on classroom and homework assignments. When teachers focus on provoking student thought and analysis, and postpone evaluation during question and answer sessions by engaging in dialogic instruction, levels of student effort are more evenly distributed among students. Moreover, the relationship between levels of initial achievement and student effort is weaker in classrooms where teachers incorporate elements of dialogic instruction into question and answer sessions. However, dialogic instruction had no effect on the distribution of participation in classroom discourse itself.     

Relevance of perceived teacher humor types for instruction and student learning

The use of humor is assumed to be an effective tool for teachers to promote instruction and student learning. However, research on teacher humor is not yet systematically linked to instructional research. To provide a starting point, a model of teacher humor effects is proposed that refers to a multidimensional conception with different types of humor. To test basic assumptions of the model, a cross-sectional study was conducted with 985 secondary school students from 45 classrooms who were surveyed on their perceptions of teacher humor as well as relevant dimensions of instruction and aspects of their own learning. Two-level modelling revealed substantial relations between teacher humor and instructional dimensions and student learning which varied considerably between different types of humor. Whereas humor related to course material showed positive associations, unrelated humor was negatively related with the investigated instructional dimensions. Two-level mediation analyses indicated that the associations between teacher humor and student learning were mediated by instructional dimensions.     

Improving Middle School Professional Development by Examining Middle School Teachers' Application of Literacy Strategies and Instructional Design

The goal of this article is to explore the effects of professional development on middle school teachers' understanding and application of literacy strategies supporting and enhancing instruction across the curriculum. This study investigated the extent to which reading and writing strategies, along with sound instructional design, were implemented by middle school teachers in their content areas based on data collected from self-reports (i.e., strategy and design checklists) and authors' classroom observations. Results from the analysis of the data collected suggest that the sampled middle school teachers used a wide variety of instructional strategies and instructional designs throughout their teaching. While certain instructional designs (whole-class discussion) and strategies (note-taking and graphic organizers) were used universally throughout the school, perhaps more important was the fact that others were selected dependent upon the unique content area they taught.     

Rates of Specific Antecedent Instructional Practices and Differences Between Title I and non-Title I Schools

The use of effective instructional strategies is clearly emphasized in current educational reform, especially in the area of reading. The purposes of this study were to investigate the rates at which specific instructional practices (i.e., attention signals, prior knowledge supports, previews, instructor modeling, student modeling, organizational prompts) were utilized during literacy time in elementary schools, determine if there were relationships among the instructional variables, and explore if teachers in Title I schools and teachers in non-Title I schools differed in their use of specific practices. Participants included teachers and students from 35 classrooms who were each observed for 5 hours, resulting in a total of 175 observation hours. The Setting Factors Assessment Tool (SFAT) was used to measure the antecedent instructional variables. Main results included that teachers in non-Title I classrooms used significantly more prior knowledge references than teachers in Title I schools; the effect size for this finding was large. Several correlations among the instructional variables were significant. The article concludes with a discussion of the main findings, implications for future research and the limitations of this study.     

教师变量对小学生数学学习观影响的多层线性分析

32名小学数学教师与这些教师所教班级的1691名学生参与了本研究.两个测量工具评价了教师的数学学科知识与学科教学知识,对教师的55节数学课进行了录像;并按照学习任务的认知水平与课堂对话的特点进行了编码,采用问卷法测查了学生对数学学习的看法与态度.多水平分析表明:教师的学科教学知识、课堂学习任务的认知水平、课堂师生对话的权威来源与教师运用学生想法的程度对学生数学学习观具有显著预测作用;教师的学科知识对学生数学学习观的预测未达到显著性水平.     

Do organizational conditions influence teacher implementation of effective classroom management practices: Findings from a randomized trial

Although there is a growing evidence base about effective classroom management practices, teacher implementation of these practices varies due to a number of factors. A school's organizational health is one aspect of the broader social environment that has been hypothesized to influence implementation of interventions. Yet, empirical evidence is limited on whether organizational contexts can influence teacher implementation of effective interventions and subsequently, classroom environments and student outcomes. In the present study, teachers in an urban school district were randomly assigned to receive training in the Incredible Years Teacher Classroom Management program (IY TCM), a classroom management intervention. We examined how teacher perceptions of their school environment moderated intervention effects for previously established treatment outcomes – implementation of effective classroom methods, students' social behaviors, emotional regulation, and social competence. Results showed that treatment effects on teacher implementation and student outcomes were moderated by teachers' sense of affiliation to their school. Specifically, main effects on implementation of effective classroom management strategies were only observed among teachers whose perceptions of initial teacher affiliation was low or average; whereas main effects on student outcomes were only found for teachers with initial high levels of affiliation.     

Tell Us More: Reading Comprehension,Engagement, and Conceptual Press Discourse

This study examines interactions between teachers and students during reading comprehension instruction to determine how certain patterns of teacher–student talk support student comprehension achievement and reading engagement. The central focus of the study is conceptual press discourse, a pattern of teacher response that includes requests for evidence, examples, clarification, and elaboration. Hierarchical Linear Modeling analysis of data from 21 fourth- and fifth-grade classrooms (495 students) indicated that in classrooms where teachers more frequently used discourse patterns that reduced conceptual press, students demonstrated weaker comprehension and engagement outcomes.     

Technology and At-Risk Young Readers and their Classrooms

This study examined the ways in which 18 first-grade teachers and their students in 11 high-risk urban schools began to use literacy-focused technology. The goal of the study was to observe the technology in use by the students, to observe the classroom dynamics and teachers’ instructional choices centered around technology use, to look at student learning, and to investigate student and teacher perceptions and beliefs as they began to use technology for literacy. Analyses of classroom and pupil observational data and of student performance data indicated positive effects of the literacy technology on classroom instruction and student literacy achievement. Further, interviews of students and teachers confirmed that the literacy technology was perceived as engaging and effective by both groups of stakeholders. The study also generated implications for further research and practice in schools struggling to make change.