STUDIES IN VISUAL PERCEPTION OF ARCHITECTURAL SPACES AND ROOMS: II. Judgments of open and closed space by category rating and magnitude estimation

G ärling , T. Studies in visual perception of architectural spaces and rooms. II. Judgments of open and closed space by category rating and magnitude estimation. Scand. J. Psychol ., 1969, 10 , 257–268.—In one experiment, colour photographs of architectural spaces were employed as stimuli and judged with respect to open and closed space. Category scales of open and closed were complementary, magnitude scales were reciprocal. Judged open space correlated positively and judged closed space negatively with physical size of actual spaces. In another experiment, judged size was found to be directly related to judged open space and inversely related to judged closed space. Furthermore, open and closed space judged in situ correlated to a significant degree with corresponding judgments from photographs.     

The perception of length on curved and flat surfaces

In three experiments, observers judged the apparent extents of spatial intervals along the surface of a curved cylinder or a flat plane that was binocularly viewed in a natural, indoor environment. The observers' judgments of surface lengths were precise and reliable but were also inaccurate and subject to relatively large constant errors. These distortions differed among the observers, but they tended to perceive lengths oriented along the curved dimension of the cylinder as being longer than physically equivalent lengths in the noncurved dimension. This phenomenon did not occur when the observers judged curved and noncurved paths on the flat surface. In addition, some observers' judgments of length were affected by changes in the distance to the cylinder, whereas others were affected by the cylinder's orientation in space. These results demonstrate that the perception of length on surfaces is highly dependent on the particular context in which the length occurs.     

Appearing truthful generalizes across different deception situations

The authors investigated whether the ability to appear truthful is specific to deception situations. Male participants were interrogated after they took part in 2 high-stake deception situations, one involving a mock crime and another involving a false opinion. The videotaped interrogations from each situation were shown to independent groups of undergraduate observers. The proportion of observers who judged each participant as truthful in one situation correlated highly with the proportion of observers who judged the same participant as truthful in the other situation. This was not correlated with physiognomy judgments. Follow-up studies revealed that although the participants showed consistency in their facial, body, and paralinguistic behaviors across situations, observers' judgments seemed to be driven only by the consistency of the dynamic facial behaviors. These results are discussed in terms of the evolutionary importance of the face in communication.     

Multiple views of spatial memory

Recent evidence indicates that mental representations of large (i.e., navigable) spaces are viewpoint dependent when observers are restricted to a single view. The purpose of the present study was to determine whether two views of a space would produce a single viewpoint-independent representation or two viewpoint-dependent representations. Participants learned the locations of objects in a room from two viewpoints and then made judgments of relative direction from imagined headings either aligned or misaligned with the studied views. The results indicated that mental representations of large spaces were viewpoint dependent, and that two views of a spatial layout appeared to produce two viewpoint-dependent representations in memory. Imagined headings aligned with the study views were more accessible than were novel headings in terms of both speed and accuracy of pointing judgments.     

Judgments of exocentric direction in large-scale space

Judgments of exocentric direction are quite common, especially when judging where others are looking or pointing. To investigate these judgments in large-scale space, observers were shown two targets in a large open field and were asked to judge the exocentric direction specified by the targets. The targets ranged in egocentric distance from 5 to 20 m with target-to-target angular separations of 45 degrees, 90 degrees, and 135 degrees. Observers judged exocentric direction using two methods: (i) by judging which point on a distant fence appeared collinear with the two targets, and (ii) by orienting their body in a direction parallel with the perceived line segment. In the collinearity task, observers had to imagine the line connecting the targets and then extrapolate this imagined line out to the fence. Observers indicated the perceived point of collinearity on a handheld 360 degrees panoramic cylinder representing their vista. The two judgment methods gave similar results except for a constant bias associated with the body-pointing response. Aside from this bias, the results of these two methods agree with other existing research indicating an effect of relative egocentric distance to the targets on judgment error--line segments are perceived as being rotated in depth. Additionally, verbal estimates of egocentric and exocentric distance suggest that perceived distance is not the cause for the systematic errors in judging exocentric direction.     

Representing part–whole relations in conceptual spaces

In this paper, we propose a cognitive semantic approach to represent part–whole relations. We base our proposal on the theory of conceptual spaces, focusing on prototypical structures in part–whole relations. Prototypical structures are not accounted for in traditional mereological formalisms. In our account, parts and wholes are represented in distinct conceptual spaces; parts are joined to form wholes in a structure space. The structure space allows systematic similarity judgments between wholes, taking into consideration shared parts and their configurations. A point in the structure space denotes a particular part structure; regions in the space represent different general types of part structures. We argue that the structural space can represent prototype effects: structural types are formed around typical arrangements of parts. We also show how structure space captures the variations in part structure of a given concept across different domains. In addition, we discuss how some taxonomies of part–whole relations can be understood within our framework.     

Type A behavior pattern and the judgment of control

We investigated the control judgments of Type A and B actors and observers after five tasks in which actual response-outcome contingency and success were varied systematically. Results indicated that, overall, actors provided higher control judgments than did observers, and both actual contingency and success influenced judged control. Type A and B actors did not differ in their self-perceptions of control but observers judged the Type A actors to have exerted more control than the Type B actors, primarily on positive contingency tasks. These findings suggest that Type As, because of their more active, dynamic style, may be credited by observers with more control or competence than is warranted. By contrast, the more relaxed style of the Type B may lead to lower than warranted evaluations of control or competence. Lastly, Type As were found to learn the contingencies better than Type Bs with important implications for the actual exercise of control.     

Scene recognition following locomotion around a scene

Effects of locomotion on scene-recognition reaction time (RT) and accuracy were studied. In experiment 1, observers memorized an 11-object scene and made scene-recognition judgments on subsequently presented scenes from the encoded view or different views (ie scenes were rotated or observers moved around the scene, both from 40 degrees to 360 degrees). In experiment 2, observers viewed different 5-object scenes on each trial and made scene-recognition judgments from the encoded view or after moving around the scene, from 36 degrees to 180 degrees. Across experiments, scene-recognition RT increased (in experiment 2 accuracy decreased) with angular distance between encoded and judged views, regardless of how the viewpoint changes occurred. The findings raise questions about conditions in which locomotion produces spatially updated representations of scenes.     

Locus of control,historical context,and black physical self-perception

Effects of locus of control on physical self-perception of black men were examined in 1968 and 1975. Externally oriented subjects were hypothesized to perceive themselves to be more Negro in appearance than they were judged to be by observers. The hypothesis was tested by comparing the subjects' own appearance judgments with the mean judgment of three observers on a scale of 15 faces which changed incrementally from Negro to Caucasian. The hypothesis was contradicted in the 1968 study and supported in the 1975 study. These discrepant results were interpreted in terms in historical events at the time of data collection.     

The visual perception of distance ratios outdoors

We conducted an experiment to evaluate the ability of 32 younger and older adults to visually perceive distances in an outdoor setting. On any given trial, the observers viewed 2 environmental distances and were required to estimate the distance ratio—the length of the (usually) larger distance relative to that of the shorter. The stimulus distance ratios ranged from 1.0 (the stimulus distances were identical) to 8.0 (1 distance interval was 8.0 times longer than the other). The stimulus distances were presented within a 26 m × 60 m portion of a grassy field. The observers were able to reliably estimate the stimulus distance ratios: The overall Pearson r correlation coefficient relating the judged and actual distance ratios was 0.762. Fifty-eight percent of the variance in the observers’ perceived distance ratios could thus be accounted for by variations in the actual stimulus ratios. About half of the observers significantly underestimated the distance ratios, while the judgments of the remainder were essentially accurate. Significant modulatory effects of sex and age occurred, such that the male observers’ judgments were the most precise, while those of the older males were the most accurate.     

The perception of texture on folded surfaces

Do judgments of texture similarity reflect surface texture or image texture? To find out, we had observers view a rectangular surface that was folded into three panels, much like a brochure. Each panel was textured with an oriented noise pattern and the observers' task was to determine which side panel matched the center panel in surface texture. Information about surface geometry was conveyed by binocular disparity and by the boundaries of the rectangular surface. We found that observers were often consistently wrong, selecting the texture that differed in the image and not on the surface. In sharp contrast, when observers judged the texture orientation on each panel individually, their judgments were accurate reflections of the surface texture. So even when observers can recover surface texture, their judgments of texture similarity may still be based on image texture.     

Perceiving the centroid of configurations on a rolling wheel

Undergraduates observed configurations of point-lights undergoing wheel-generated motions and judged how wheel-like the movement of each stimulus appeared on a 7-point scale. Viewer judgments were predicted by a metric defining the variable parameters for the motion path of each configuration’s geometric center—the centroid. The effects on judgments of eye movement and the stimulus characteristics of rotation, translation, and configuration were explored in six experiments. First, a strain operation on the dynamic stimuli did not affect the ability of the metric to predict perceptual judgments. Second, the predictive strength of the metric did not interact with the type of eye movements used in viewing the stimuli, though judged wheel-likeness was greater under pursuit vision than under static fixation. Third, variations in the extent of translation yielded little, if any, effect on observers’ judgments, nor did translation in a circular path. Finally, for stimuli having two lights extremely close together in the configuration, the metric’s predictive value was slightly lessened but only at the limits of visual acuity. Thus, within a wide range of presentation conditions, and for a wide variety of configurations, a metric that defined the variable parameters for the motion path of the centroid was an accurate predictor of observers’ judgments of goodness of perceived rotary motion.     

Emotion judgments do not differ as a function of perceived nationality

This article reports three studies concerning the relationship between emotion judgments and perceived nationality of the expressors being judged. Study 1 demonstrated that observers do not reliably make implicit assumptions about the nationalities of the expressors in judgment tasks. Study 2 examined judgments of Americans and Japanese observers who were told that Caucasian and Asian expressors were Americans and Japanese, respectively, and who made fixed‐choice judgments and intensity ratings. Study 3 examined judgments of Americans given similar instructions and who used a multiscalar rating task. Neither Studies 2 nor 3 provided evidence that nationality information affected judgments. These findings have implications not only for basic emotion theory, but also for international and intercultural communication training.     

Physicians' H]ead and Body Positions as Determinants of Perceived Rapport

The relationship between physicians' b]ody movement and judgments of rapport was examined in this study. One-hundred eighteen observers rated physicians' b]ehavior on 14 bipolar scales assessing dimensions of empathy. Physicians' n]onverbal behavior was manipulated so that there were three levels of trunk angle (forward, straight, backward), two levels of arm position (open, folded), two levels of leg position (open, crossed), and two levels of head attitude (nodding, not-nodding). Significant effects were found for trunk angle, head attitude, and arm posture; physicians who leaned forward with open arm positions and nodded their head were judged more positively. Discussion focuses on the reinforcing valuc of nodding, judges' p]erceptions of physicians' a]ccessibility conveyed by trunk and arm postures, and expressions of dominance in physician-patient encounters.     

The more the better – But more of which? Information quantity and shared meaning as predictors of consistency and accuracy in person judgment

This study investigates the consistency and accuracy of person judgments at zero acquaintance in two conditions: Targets were judged repeatedly across a sequence of videotaped situations, either (a) by different observers in each situation, or (b) by the same observer in all situations. Replicating previous research, accuracy increased (inversely accelerated) when including additional situations rated by different observers. However, much of this increase was owed to improved inter-rater reliability (a confound in previous research). Also, cross-situational consistency of judgments was much higher when all ratings came from the same observer. These results underscore the crucial influence of shared meaning on judgment accuracy and consistency.     

Accurate Judgments of Neuroticism at Zero Acquaintance: A Question of Relevance

Prior studies have consistently found a surprising inaccuracy of people's neuroticism judgments at zero acquaintance. Based on the Realistic Accuracy Model (Funder, 1995), we hypothesize that this is due to a lack of relevance of the situation in which targets are typically observed. Fifty participants were videotaped in a highly trait‐relevant (i.e., socially stressful) situation as well as three less relevant situations. An aggregate of self‐reports and informant reports was used as the accuracy criterion. Four independent groups of unacquainted observers judged participants' neuroticism based on these short video sequences. Results showed that neuroticism judgments were significantly more accurate for the most trait‐relevant situation compared with the other three situations. This finding can be explained using lens model analyses: Only in the most relevant situation did neuroticism predict both visual nervousness and vocal nervousness, both of which in turn predicted neuroticism judgments by lay observers. Our findings show that strangers are sensitive to interindividual differences in neuroticism as long as targets are observed in a trait‐relevant situation.     

Judgments of communicative intent in conversation

In conversation people make specific statements that are intended to accomplish some particular social action (e.g., to praise, criticize or sympathize). To communicate effectively, people must consensually perceive the intentions of each other’s messages. In this research we examined the degree of consensus in judgments of communicative intent. Participants engaged in separate, brief conversations with three friends, watched videotapes of their interactions, and judged the communicative intent of 6 randomly selected statements. Observers also judged these statements under one of three conditions: audio-visual, audio, or text. Analyses showed that participants agreed strongly in their judgments of intent and that observers also agreed in their judgments, but not as much as participants.     

Distance estimation in vista space

Although distance estimation has been extensively studied in the laboratory, our ability to judge large distances in the field is not well researched. We challenge the notion that large distances are uniformly underestimated. We presented different targets to observers at distances ranging from 25 to 500 m to obtain egocentric distance judgments in natural environments. Three experiments showed that observers tend to underestimate distances below 75 m in a large open field, whereas they overestimate farther distances. Both the eye height of the observer and the size of the target also influenced distance estimation. We conclude that the notion of a uniform vista space has to be reconceived.     

Learning to perceive the relative mass of colliding balls: the effects of ratio scaling and feedback

The theory of direct perception holds that competent observers are able to detect optical patterns that specify the relative mass of colliding balls. Heuristic theorists, on the other hand, claim that judgments of relative mass are based on variables that do not specify relative mass. We contrasted these views with an experiment in which participants were given feedback on their ratio-scaled estimates of the relative mass of simulated colliding balls. Correlations between judged relative mass and various kinetic and kinematic measures of the collisions revealed that (1) judgments of relative mass become more accurate with feedback, (2) different observers use different variables, (3) during training, many observers change which variables they use, (4) before training, observers tend to use nonspecifying variables or combinations thereof, (5) after a minimal amount of training, at least some observers seem to detect mass-specifying information, and (6) the judgments do not support a generalization of the heuristic model of Gilden and Proffitt (1989, 1994). These findings suggest that direct perception of relative mass is a skill that can be developed through appropriate training.