The circle as a model for the interpersonal domain of Swedish trait terms

Swedish interpersonal traits were assumed to have the structure demonstrated by Wiggins for the Interpersonal Adjective Scales in English. Positive and negative interpersonal trait terms were rated for accuracy when describing people. The ratings were used to construct 16 eight-item scales which were ordered relative to two principal components and labelled A to P. The evaluative meaning of each scale item was rated by a second group. The ranks of the mean ratings for the scales followed expectations. The 16 scales were combined into eight scales PA, BC, DE, etc., to NO. From a new group of subjects (N = 159) self-ratings were obtained. The correlations between the eight scales were used to obtain maximum-likelihood estimates of population coefficients of a hypothetical circulant matrix. A circumplex model fitted the data well and the two equally large orthogonal components ordered the PA to NO variables within a circular semantic space. The model was interpreted as a structural representation of basic-level categories for interpersonal attributes of personality in the natural language.     

Cognitive and behavioral attention in children with math difficulties

Cognitive assessments and behavioral ratings of attention were used to examine the relation of inattention to math performance in children. Third grade students with math difficulties (MD; n?=?17) and math and reading difficulties (MDRD; n?=?35) were administered the Attentional Network Test (ANT), as well as achievement and intelligence measures. Strengths and Weaknesses of ADHD-Symptoms and Normal-Behavior-IV (SWAN-IV) Inattention ratings were collected from teachers. Two comparison groups were also recruited: a typically achieving group (n?=?23) and a group that responded to a math-tutoring intervention (responders; n?=?54). On the ANT, children with MD and MDRD did not perform significantly different than typically achieving children or responders on measures of alerting and orienting attention and executive control. All subgroups did demonstrate performance patterns that were expected on the ANT. However, performance across blocks of the task was inconsistent, suggesting poor reliability. There were no relations between ANT performance and SWAN-IV behavioral inattention scores, though behavioral ratings of inattention correlated significantly with math performance. Children with MD and MDRD may have more difficulty with distraction and attention to detail in contextual situations, as opposed to impulsive responding in these settings. The lack of relation between cognitive attention and math performance may suggest that either the ANT does not assess the relevant attention constructs associated with math difficulties or may parallel studies of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in which cognitive and behavioral assessments are weakly related.     

Developing a measure of interpretation bias for depressed mood: An ambiguous scenarios test

The tendency to interpret ambiguous everyday situations in a relatively negative manner (negative interpretation bias) is central to cognitive models of depression. Limited tools are available to measure this bias, either experimentally or in the clinic. This study aimed to develop a pragmatic interpretation bias measure using an ambiguous scenarios test relevant to depressed mood (the AST-D).¹ In Study 1, after a pilot phase (N = 53), the AST-D was presented via a web-based survey (N = 208). Participants imagined and rated each AST-D ambiguous scenario. As predicted, higher dysphoric mood was associated with lower pleasantness ratings (more negative bias), independent of mental imagery measures. In Study 2, self-report ratings were compared with objective ratings of participants’ imagined outcomes of the ambiguous scenarios (N = 41). Data were collected in the experimental context of a functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging scanner. Consistent with subjective bias scores, independent judges rated more sentences as negatively valenced for the high versus low dysphoric group. Overall, results suggest the potential utility of the AST-D in assessing interpretation bias associated with depressed mood.     

The Nature of Executive Function (EF) Deficits in Daily Life Activities in Adults with ADHD and Their Relationship to Performance on EF Tests

Although attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is believed to impair EF, research using EF tests shows such deficits exist in only a minority of those with ADHD. This study hypothesized that this disparity is largely due to the low ecological validity of these EF tests. A 91-item rating scale of EF was constructed based on EF theories and found to represent 5 underlying dimensions: Self-Management to Time, Self-Organization/Problem-Solving, Self-Discipline, Self-Motivation, and Self-Activation/Concentration. Three groups were compared on these scales: Adults with ADHD (N = 146), Clinical control adults not diagnosed with ADHD (N = 97), and a Community control group (N = 109). The ADHD group had more severe EF ratings than did the Clinical group and Community control groups on all 5 scales using both self and other-reported versions. Relationships between the EF scales and tests were low and mostly not significant. Most ADHD adults were clinically impaired on the EF ratings but only a small minority were so on the tests. The EF ratings were more highly associated with measures of deviant behavior (antisocial acts, crime diversity, negative driving outcomes) than the EF tests, most of which were unrelated to such behavior. These results agree with previous research showing that EF tests are largely unrelated to EF ratings and that EF ratings are more strongly associated with impairment in major life activities, in this case deviant or antisocial behavior. Contrary to earlier conclusions based on EF tests, adult ADHD involves substantial problems in EF in daily life.     

Individual Differences Associated with Emotional and Behavioral Responses to Ambiguous Social Situations in which Rejection Might be Inferred

This study sought to examine the extent to which undergraduates' experiences with and attitudes relevant to rejection may be associated with their emotional and behavioral responses to ambiguous social situations in which rejection might be inferred. Undergraduate students completed questionnaires that assessed their experiences with and attitudes relevant to being rejected. Next, each participant read six hypothetical scenarios that described various situations that could be interpreted as interpersonal rejection. Following each scenario, participants completed questionnaires that assessed their emotional and behavioral responses to the hypothetical situation. Analyses revealed that the participants' experiences with rejection (and, to a lesser extent, their rejection-relevant attitudes) were associated with a negative emotional response and some negative behavioral responses. In sum, when another individual's interpersonal behavior has an uncertain intent, undergraduates' prior experiences with rejection may be especially important in determining the extent to which they feel and act as if they have been rejected.     

The Relationship between Two Measures of the Tendency to Give Socially Desirable Responses

Two measures of the tendency to endorse socially desirable (SD) responses were obtained for 137 Ss. The first was from Edwards' SD scale and the second from an experimental scale consisting of responses in the P-F Study for which ratings of SD were available. There was no significant correlation between these measures. A second group of 94 Ss then rated a sample of 10 items each from the 2 scales on six bipolar dimensions. It is concluded that there is agreement across Ss as to the connotations of a socially desirable response but that personality type statements differ from responses in social situations in respect to the measure each provides of a person's tendency to endorse SD responses.     

Effects of client presenting syndromes on client and therapist dominance and affiliation during early sessions of Rational-Emotive psychotherapy

This is a study of effects of presenting clinical status on interpersonal presentation during early Rational-Emotive therapy (RET). Independent variables were intake scores for clients from the axis I scales of the Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory (MCMI; Millon, 1983). Dependent variables, from audiotapes of sessions at the Institute for RET (IRET), were Revised Interpersonal Adjective Scale (IAS-R; Wiggins, Trapnell and Phillips, 1988) ratings of clients and therapists. MCMI scales associated with stimulation seeking (N, hypomania; T, drug abuse) were significantly positively correlated with client dominance. Therapist affiliation was negatively correlated with all client MCMI scales, and these were significant for scales that assessed the most severe intake presenting problems (A, anxiety, D, dysthymia).     

Does Acquisitive Self‐Presentation in Personality Self‐Ratings Enhance Validity? Evidence from two experimental field studies

The aim of the present research was to demonstrate that acquisitive self‐presentation in personality scales is not a barrier to their criterion‐related validities in human resource contexts, but rather a means to improve them. A pilot study (Study 1) with 96 job incumbents provided preliminary positive evidence. In Study 2, in the experimental group (n=99), the instructions asked job incumbents to work on a Big‐Five personality inventory (BFI‐K) as if they took part in a personnel selection procedure for a personally very attractive position. In the control group (n=93) of Study 2, job incumbents were asked to answer the inventory items honestly. As expected, the correlation between the self‐ratings of the motive to get along (i.e., which comprises emotional stability, conscientiousness, and agreeableness) and contextual performance assessments was significantly higher in the experimental group than in the control group in Study 2. Additionally, the correlation between the self‐ratings of the motive to get ahead (i.e., which comprises extraversion and openness to experience) and task performance and leadership assessments was significantly higher in the experimental group than in the control group in Study 2. It is proposed that responding to a personality inventory in a human resource decision situation should be conceptualized as a workplace simulation.     

Prediction of Effectiveness in Leaderless Group Discussions with the Adjective Check List1

This study used Adjective Check List (ACL) scales and related four scales to individual differences in group problem-solving behavior. The ACL scores of 237 managers who had participated in a training program were examined in comparison with ratings of comparative effectiveness in two leaderless group discussion exercises.     

Friendship and romance across the U.S. political divide: Hindrance or help for outgroup political attitudes?

Consistent with the intergroup contact literature, cross-political relationships (e.g., friendships or romantic relationships between different partisans) may help reduce inter-political group prejudice. Given that unfavorable attitudes based on the political group membership are particularly heightened at present in the United States, we explored whether having cross-political friendships (Study 1) or romantic relationships (Study 2) predict more positive interpersonal or intergroup attitudes among American Democrats and Republicans. In Study 1, using a social network measure (N = 301), where participants reported on their closest friends, cross-political (versus same-political) friendship was associated with less positive interpersonal attitudes when this relationship was unsatisfying. Having any (versus no) or more (versus less) cross-political group friendships was not associated with holding more positive intergroup attitudes. In Study 2, cross-political romantic relationships were examined (N = 392). Having a cross- (versus same-) political romantic relationship was associated with relatively less positive attitudes toward the political outgroup via lower empathy when relationship satisfaction was low. Study findings highlight the potential limitations of the beneficial effects of intergroup contact.     

The moderating influence of job performance dimensions on convergence of supervisory and peer ratings of job performance: unconfounding construct-level convergence and rating difficulty

Meta-analysis was used to cumulate the correlations between supervisor and peer ratings for different dimensions of job performance. The general pattern in the data suggested that raters from the same organizational level disagree as much as raters from different levels. Methods were used to separate the effects of rating difficulty and lack of construct-level convergence on the correlation between supervisor and peer ratings. The authors found complete construct-level convergence for ratings of overall job performance, productivity, effort, job knowledge, quality, and leadership but not for ratings of administrative competence, interpersonal competence, and compliance or acceptance of authority. Higher rating difficulty was more strongly associated with lower mean observed peer-supervisor correlations than were construct-level disagreements between peers and supervisors. Implications for research and practice are discussed.     

Vocal indicators of facilitative interpersonal skills

The facilitative interpersonal skills (FIS) method uses simulations of difficult client moments as a test of helpers' ability to remain therapeutic in therapeutically stressful situations. A total of 135 participants completed the FIS task as part of a training in helping skills and provided verbal responses that were assessed by trained raters for interpersonal skills. Audio recordings of these verbal responses were then analysed acoustically for fundamental frequency (F0), spectral slope and F0 range. Mean F0 and F0 range were more highly associated with trained raters' ratings of FIS for female participants than for male participants, although F0 range was associated with FIS of both males and females. The results suggest that F0 is associated with FIS for females, especially the FIS items that are indicative of emotional expression and verbal fluency. Findings are discussed as possibly indicating that some expression of higher F0 in response to distressed client situations may be part of interpersonal skills, such that more skilled therapists respond to stressful client situations with a higher F0.     

The influence of group discussion on performance judgments: rating accuracy, contrast effects, and halo

The authors investigated the effect of group discussion, such as may occur formally in panel interview scenarios, assessment centers, or 360-degree feedback situations, on judgments of performance. Research on group polarization suggests that the effect of group discussion combined with raters' preexisting impressions of ratees or interviewees should result in an extremitization of impressions. Thus, the authors hypothesized that group discussion would (a) make ratings less accurate, (b) polarize impressions that were already good or poor as reflected by greater contrast effects, and (c) increase positive halo. Results indicated that group discussion resulted in less accurate ratings and greater contrast effects. Additional analyses suggested that group discussion increased positive halo. The authors discuss implications for research on group or panel judgments.     

Endorsement of distributively fair and unfair leaders in interpersonal and intergroup situations

Differences in the strength of endorsement for distributively fair and unfair leaders in interpersonal and intergroup situations were measured. Fair leaders were expected to receive stronger endorsements than unfair leaders in interpersonal situations. This difference, however, was expected to attenuate, if not reverse in intergroup situations when the unfairness favoured the ingroup. An attenuation effect obtained in Experiment 1 (N=49) using ad hoc groups in a laboratory setting. Attenuation and reversal effects obtained, respectively, in Experiments 2 (N=314) and 3 (N=213) using preexisting groups (students and New Zealanders, respectively) in a scenario setting. Fairness ratings followed patterns similar to leadership endorsements in Experiments 2 and 3. Finally, Experiment 3 showed a reversal in participants' private attitudes toward an issue about which the leader expressed an opinion. These data extend previous research on leadership endorsement and are consistent with predictions derived from Social Identity Theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1986). © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Mindful social inferences: Decentering decreases hostile attributions

While research indicates that mindfulness can benefit individual well-being, less is known about its potential impact in the interpersonal domain. In the current research, we examined whether a central element of mindfulness—decentering—decreases hostile attributions in ambiguous social situations. We hypothesized that decentering from experiences—observing and considering them as mental events that arise and disappear—hampers the development of hostile attributions. A series of three laboratory studies, two of which were high-powered and pre-registered, demonstrated that decentering decreases hostile attribution in response to ambiguous social scenarios as compared to immersion instructions, and as compared to baseline. Additionally, the results suggest that decentering may be particularly beneficial in reducing hostile attribution bias among participants high in trait rumination. The current findings provide initial insights into the effect of decentering on the development of hostile attribution bias, and the association between mindfulness and interpersonal responses more generally.     

Interpersonal development, stability, and change in early adulthood

The goal of this research was to explore the development of the interpersonal system mapped by the interpersonal circumplex in early adulthood (ages 18–22). This study uses the Longitudinal Study of Personality Disorders sample (N = 250; 53% female). Participants completed the Revised Interpersonal Adjective Scales (Wiggins, Trapnell, & Phillips, 1988) in their freshman, sophomore, and senior years of college. Estimates of structural, rank‐order, mean, individual, and ipsative stability were calculated for the broad interpersonal dimensions of Dominance and Affiliation and also the lower order octant scales. Additionally, the interpersonal profile parameters of differentiation and prototypicality were calculated at each wave and explored longitudinally and also used as predictors of interpersonal stability. We found excellent structural and high rank‐order and ipsative stability in the interpersonal scales over this time period. Mean increases on the Affiliation axis, but not on the Dominace axis, were found to mask differential rates of change among the octant scales, along with significant individual variation in the rates of change. Interpersonal differentiation and prototypicality were related to higher stability in overall interpersonal style. Results point to evidence of both stability and nuanced change, illuminating some of the features of the structural variables that can be derived from interpersonal circumplex profiles.     

An Exploratory Study of Integrative Personality Pathology Systems and the Interpersonal Circumplex

Normative and pathological personality traits are theoretically associated with interpersonal behavior patterns and difficulties. However, little is known about relations between dimensional personality systems that integrate pathological and normative traits and social functioning. The current study explores the projections of scales from two integrative frameworks, the Dimensional Assessment of Personality Pathology and the Schedule for Nonadaptive and Adaptive Personality, onto interpersonal circumplex traits and problems. The DAPP and the SNAP demonstrated similar overall validity in predicting the interpersonal domain. Results suggest a novel framework for understanding personality—interpersonal behavior relations by categorizing scales according to their: a) minimal, b) non-specific, c) specific, and d) differential relations to interpersonal traits and problems with important implications for future research relating clinical constructs to interpersonal behavior as well as clinical assessment and behavioral predictions based on SNAP and DAPP scales.     

The roles of retribution and utility in determining punishment

Three studies examined the motives underlying people’s desire to punish. In previous research, participants have read hypothetical criminal scenarios and assigned “fair” sentences to the perpetrators. Systematic manipulations within these scenarios revealed high sensitivity to factors associated with motives of retribution, but low sensitivity to utilitarian motives. This research identifies the types of information that people seek when punishing criminals, and explores how different types of information affect punishments and confidence ratings. Study 1 demonstrated that retribution information is more relevant to punishment than either deterrence or incapacitation information. Study 2 traced the information that people actually seek when punishing others and found a consistent preference for retribution information. Finally, Study 3 confirmed that retribution information increases participant confidence in assigned punishments. The results thus provide converging evidence that people punish primarily on the basis of retribution.     

RATINGS OF MANAGERIAL CHARACTERISTICS: EVALUATION DIFFICULTY, CO-WORKER AGREEMENT, AND SELF-AWARENESS

This research examined variables contributing to self-awareness and coworker agreement on 30 managerial characteristics. The first study collected data from 233 management students on the difficulty of rating different characteristics. It also developed reliable measures of self-protection mechanisms that may negatively influence self-awareness. Four self-protection factors were identified: Denial, Giving Up, Self-Promotion, and Fear of Failure. The second study collected self-, supervisor, peer, and subordinate ratings of the managerial characteristics to derive multiple measures of self-awareness. There was a total of 283 co-worker ratings for 36 target middle managers. The results showed that within-sample co-worker disagreement measures from Study 2 were higher for items that were perceived by the sample in Study 1 as more difficult to rate. Self-ratings were more highly related to the average of co-worker ratings than to the ratings provided by any one co-worker alone. Co-workers' ratings of the target's use of self-protection mechanisms were negatively associated with self-awareness measures. Ideas are discussed for other correlates of self-awareness and ways to enhance the value of feedback processes.     

Distraction by irrelevant sound during foreperiods selectively impairs temporal preparation

The issue of unidimensionality is dealt with in various research areas in the field of Psychology (e.g. conceptual spaces, semantic modeling, psychometrics) and always involves spatial modeling. An investigation of the dimensionality of opposite spatial scales (even basic) has however not yet been carried out. In this paper we look at whether opposite judgments of height, size, width and length (high/low, large/small, wide/narrow, and long/short) imply underlying unidimensional continua. In three experiments, independent ratings for the 8 above mentioned properties were elicited with participants looking at photographic representations of various objects (Study 1), real life objects (Study 2) and spatial extensions in object-independent conditions (Study 3). Explorative and confirmative factor analysis and Andrich Extended Rating Scale Models were applied in order to determine whether the ratings referred to opposite scales on the same linear continuum. Results from the three studies consistently revealed that this is not the case. A joint analysis of the data showed interesting interactions between the spatial properties analyzed suggesting a possible explanation for the lack of unidimensionality.