Feedback of Information About the Values and Attitudes of Self and Others as Determinants of Long-Term Cognitive and Behavioral Change1

Previous experiments designed to modify persons' values and subsequent attitudes and behavior have used direct self-confrontation procedures to arouse self-dissatisfaction in subjects. The present study compared the effects on values and behavior of the previously used self-confrontation procedure with a modified value-change procedure which did not confront subjects with information about their own values. Both procedures resulted in college students significantly increasing their ranking of the values equality and freedom. These changes were evident 4 weeks after the experimental procedures. Four months after the experimental treatments subjects were solicited to behaviorally support various activities of the Committee to End Racism, and subjects in both experimental groups showed a significantly greater behavioral effect than did control subjects. Thus, significant long-term value and behavioral change may be experimentally induced even when subjects are not provided objective information about their own value-attitude system.     

The effects of value confrontation and reinforcement counseling on the career planning attitudes and behavior of adolescent males

An experiment was conducted to compare the relative effectiveness of a value confrontation procedure and a procedure based on verbal operant conditioning in enhancing career development attitudes and increasing the frequency of information-seeking behavior in rural adolescent males. Ninety subjects were identified as internally controlled or externally controlled based on their locus of control scores and then randomly assigned to one of the two experimental treatment groups or a control group. The value confrontation procedure involved developing an awareness of self-dissatisfaction about one's career planning and relating this self-dissatisfaction to the importance one gave to the values logical and responsible. These values had been identified empirically in this study as having a relationship to career planning. The reinforcement counseling treatment involved the interpretation of individual career maturity data followed by the verbal operant conditioning of responses indicative of career maturity. Post tests administered 7 weeks after the treatments showed that the value confrontation procedure resulted in significantly greater frequency of information seeking for internally controlled subjects when compared to the reinforcement counseling and control procedures. No treatment was significant in increasing the maturity level of career development attitudes.     

Influences on Students’ Decisions to Report Cheating: A Laboratory Experiment

We use a controlled laboratory experiment design to test rational choice theory on student whistleblowing. We examine reporting costs by comparing actual reporting behavior under anonymous and non-anonymous reporting channels. Reporting benefits are explored by considering the influence on reporting of group versus individual reward systems. We find that the type of reporting channel does not significantly influence student reporting behavior. Rewarding students based on group test scores results in significantly higher reporting rates compared to a system rewarding students based on individual test scores. Our laboratory research design allows for the measurement of actual reporting. The high reporting rates in this study emphasize the importance of clearly stating what is considered to be unethical behavior and directly asking students about their ethical environment.     

Reinforcement or compensation? The effects of parents' work and financial conditions on adolescents' work values during the Great Recession

The Great Recession brought many changes to the work and financial lives of American families. Little is known, however, about how changes in parental work conditions in recessionary times influence children's vocational development. Drawing on data from the Youth Development Study, we examine whether parents' recessionary experiences shape adolescents' work values. The findings indicate that adolescents' work values are shaped through a cross-generational reinforcement model; both extrinsic and intrinsic values are stronger when parental work conditions are more rewarding. In an exception to this pattern, unemployment among parents with low levels of education (high school degrees or less) is positively associated with children's extrinsic and intrinsic orientations, more consistent with a compensation model.     

The Influence of Survey Confidentiality and Construct Measurement in Estimating Rates of Childhood Victimization Among Navy Recruits

Surveys that directly ask participants whether they have been abused are likely to derive different results than studies that ask about specific childhood sexual experiences or about experiences with specific types of parental aggression that participants may or may not personally define as abusive. Rates are also likely to be affected by the level of confidentiality of the survey. We compared results from the nonconfidential military Sailor's Health Inventory Program (SHIP; Mittelman, Plunkett, & Bayer, 1998) with the results of the Survey of Recruits' Behaviors (SRB; Merrill, Newell, Hervig, Booth-Kewley, Patriarca, & Gilman, 1998). The SRB included both confidential and anonymous survey conditions. Rates of self-reported childhood abuse varied markedly. SHIP rates were lowest, with 5% of the participants identified as victims of abuse. Using SRB behavioral definitions under anonymous survey conditions resulted in the highest rate of 63%. Data derived using self-definitions and behavioral definitions independently accounted for variability in participants' symptoms of depression, anxiety, and sexual difficulties.     

Boys will be boys (and girls will be girls): The attribution of gender role stereotypes in a gaming situation

This study tested one hypothesis concerning the attribution of gender role stereotypes about competitive behavior and three hypotheses concerning differences in attribution of sex between male and female subjects. The study used a Prisoner's Dilemma Game setting to expose subjects to one of three conditions (competitive, cooperative, or tit-for-tat) to measure attribution of sex to an unknown confederate. A chi-square analysis revealed significant differences in the attribution of sex to the anonymous confederate between the competitive and the combined cooperative and tit-for-tat groups. In the competitive condition, subjects were more prone to think that the anonymous confederate was male than were subjects in the cooperative and tit-for-tat condition. This finding is consistent with the gender role stereotype that generally associates competitive behavior with masculinity and not with femininity. Post hoc chi-squares also revealed no difference between male and female subjects in the attribution of sex in any of the three conditions. Implications of these findings are discussed.     

Assessment of antisocial behaviour in children and adolescents: new data with the ASB scale

Information is given about a series of studies with Allsopp and Feldman's ASB scale (1976) in its Spanish version, which compliments the information collected in Silva, Martorell and Clemente (1986a). It deals with test-retest reliability with an interval of 12 months; with comparisons between anonymous and non-anonymous data, and comparison between self-evaluation and evaluation by others. The results support the metric quality of the ASB scale, inviting revision of some of the common criticisms made of these types of instruments.     

Constructing Gender in Chat Groups

We investigated the construction of gender in chat groups. Four unacquainted persons chatted in two gender-anonymous conditions and a non-anonymous control condition. In one anonymous condition, the gender focus was made salient. The other groups did not know about the gender focus. All participants had to guess the gender of the others and give reasons for their decisions. Results suggest that (a) overall, 2/3 of gender guesses fit the sex category of the targets, (b) gender anonymity was more comfortable for women, (c) participants used mostly gender-stereotypic cues to infer gender, however, men and women used syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic cues (with different predictive value) to different degrees, (d) conversational behavior varied depending on gender anonymity, and (e) degree of gender salience was irrelevant for the use of gender as an organizing category.     

Two Cultures Revisited: New Widening Gaps

Aristotle continues to be a highly cited author in cultural sciences (human and social sciences) and humanities. In the last two decades, his work attracted up to a hundred times more attention than the work of Konrad Lorenz or Edward O. Wilson, who have attempted to synthesize new knowledge on behavior and society and proposed alternatives to traditional, intuitively appealing, explanations. Aristotle's interpretations of the world, which appear to be intuitive to the human mind, were abandoned in natural sciences upon introduction of the experimental method. Human intuition may have been appropriate in conditions under which it was originally selected: for life of small non-anonymous groups of hunters and gatherers in the savannah. Intuition confines human understanding to a simple reality circumscribed by a boundary that can be called Aristotle's barrier. The barrier may only be crossed by experimentation, which is largely missing in cultural sciences. Snow's concept of two cultures may be revisited to characterize a splitting of natural sciences versus cultural sciences. It may also be applied to a widening gulf between science and technoscience. Diverging of the two cultures may have far-reaching consequences for prospects of humankind's survival.     

The durations of attention to alternatives and re-evaluation in choices with two and three alternatives

In two experiments on choice the durations of attention to the alternatives were measured. In experiment 1 each subject chose one from two pictures; in experiment 2 the choice was one from three pictures. In both experiments the subjects understood that they would acquire the picture that they selected. In each experiment higher and lower conflict conditions were induced by offering subjects a choice between alternatives that had been evaluated either equally or disparately. In both experiments a significant relationship appeared between duration of attention and preference order with most subjects looking longest at the alternative that was preferred. In the comparison between conditions this effect was found to be stronger under lower conflict than under higher conflict; this difference reached a significant level in experiment 2. These results are contrary to findings by Gerard (1967), and this matter is discussed. The relevance of the results to other theories is examined. Inferences were drawn from dissonance theory about re-evaluation effects after decision, and evaluation changes were measured in the experiments. After adjustment for measurement regression, the data failed to reveal a significant chronic re-evaluation effect. Contrary to dissonance theory, the re-evaluation effect was weaker in the three-alternative choice experiment than in the two-alternative choice experiment.     

Larger reward values alone are not enough to entice more cooperation

Two experiments using an iterated prisoner's dilemma game examined under which conditions participants' cooperation rates would either change due to monetary value changes (e.g., 3 cents to 3 dollars) or not change due to numeric value changes (e.g., 3 dollars to 300 cents). A total of 102 university students played the game against a computer that employed one of four strategies across blocks. Results showed high rates of cooperation when participants played against a tit-for-tat strategy and low rates of cooperation against a random strategy. There was no change in cooperation rates due to changes in numeric value alone and a decrease in cooperation rates when large monetary values were at stake. Cooperation rates were higher and cooperation responses slower at earlier stages of the game. I argue that people's ability to strategize plays a key role in the changing rates and speed of cooperative behaviour in the prisoner's dilemma.     

The prevalence of suicidal phenomena in adolescents: a systematic review of population-based studies

The results of a systematic review of the international literature on the prevalence of suicidal phenomena in adolescents, including the influence of survey method, gender, and ethnicity are reported. The literature was searched using six electronic databases to identify all population-based studies of self-reported suicidal phenomena; 128 studies were included, comprising 513,188 adolescents. The mean proportion of adolescents reporting they had attempted suicide at some point in their lives was 9.7% (95% CI, 8.5-10.9), and 29.9% (95% CI, 26.1-33.8) of adolescents said they had thought about suicide at some point. Females were significantly more likely than males to report most suicidal phenomena. A lower prevalence of some suicidal phenomena was found for Asian populations. The prevalence of suicidal phenomena varied depending on the terminology used and tended to be higher in studies employing anonymous questionnaires than in studies employing non-anonymous methods (questionnaires or interviews), although most of these differences were not statistically significant.     

Response to Geis on anti-corporate polemics

This article responds to Geis's (1998) critique of Fox's (1996) article “The Law Says Corporations are Persons, but Psychology Knows Better.” It clarifies points of disagreement, emphasizes the importance of placing in broader context the debate over the corporate legal form's benefits and drawbacks, calls for fundamental change in the sociopolitical status quo so as to better meet human needs and values, and defends advocacy of such changes by psychologists. It suggests, contrary to Geis's view, that the possibility of false consciousness about corporate society and other components of the status quo should be investigated rather than dismissed out of hand. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The pursuit of self‐interest and rule breaking in an anonymous situation

The present study examined whether psychological self‐interest would instigate rule breaking in an anonymous situation. In total, 66 individuals were observed whether they would pursue material or psychological self‐interest by breaking existing rules under the cloak of anonymity. Anonymity was defined to minimize accountability for one's behavior, and was strictly manipulated to make all participants equally anonymous during the experiment. Results showed that only participants in the material‐reward condition broke the rules, whereas those in the psychological‐reward condition did not. Also, there was no difference found between the two conditions in subjective feelings of anonymity and public self‐awareness although rule breaking was observed only in the material‐reward condition. Implications for socially undesirable behavior in anonymous situations are discussed.     

On Being Moved by Art: How Reading Fiction Transforms the Self

An experiment tested the hypothesis that art can cause significant changes in the experience of one's own personality traits under laboratory conditions. After completing a set of questionnaires, including the Big-Five Inventory (BFI) and an emotion checklist, the experimental group read the short story The Lady With the Toy Dog by Chekhov, while the control group read a comparison text that had the same content as the story, but was documentary in form. The comparison text was controlled for length, readability, complexity, and interest level. Participants then completed again the BFI and emotion checklist, randomly placed within a larger set of questionnaires. The results show the experimental group experienced significantly greater change in self-reported experience of personality traits than the control group, and that emotion change mediated the effect of art on traits. Further consideration should be given to the role of art in the facilitation of processes of personality growth and maturation.     

Assignment of Leadership Role Changes Performers' Gaze During Piano Duo Performances

This study investigated modulation of gaze and synchronization in piano duos under manipulation of the leader-follower relationship. Three pairs of pianists played under 3 conditions: reversed leader/follower roles and one where neither was leader or follower. The primo and second players could see one another through a glass window but could hear only the sounds of the pianos. We analyzed each performer's gaze toward the coperformer frame by frame and measured asynchrony between performers. The main findings are that (a) gaze was altered in the presence of leadership assignments-followers' and leaders' gaze durations lengthened and shortened, respectively; (b) mutual gaze just before tempo changes enhanced synchronization regardless of leadership condition; and (c) the asynchronies of tone onset at the moment of a tempo change under the leader/follower conditions did not significantly differ from that under the control condition.     

Ingratiation tactics channeled by target values and threat capability1

Several hypotheses concerning the use of ingratiation tactics were tested in a paradigm where subjects believed that monetary rewards were contingent on a favorable evaluation from a supervisor. Manipulated variables in the 2 × 2 × 2 factorial design were (a) the nature of the supervisor's values (i.e., efficiency vs. sociability), (b) the level of threats issued by the supervisor (no threat vs. high threat), and (c) the extent to which the subjects were dependent on the supervisor's evaluation (low dependency vs. high dependency). The dependent variables were the extent to which the subjects used the ingratiation tactics of other-enhancement (flattery) and selective self-presentation. Findings indicate that the manipulation of the supervisor's values affected the form of other-enhancement used by subjects; more flattery in terms of efficiency occurred in the efficiency values condition, while more flattery in terms of sociability occurred in the sociability values condition. The supervisor's values also affected self-presentation; subjects claimed to hold efficiency ideals when the supervisor held efficiency values, but (in line with earlier findings) they did not claim to hold sociability ideals when the supervisor held sociability values. The manipulation of threats issued by the supervisor had a significant effect on the subjects' use of other-enhancement with respect to the target's sociability, but it had no effect on other ingratiation measures. Finally, the manipulation of dependency had no effect on other-enhancement, but it did produce a surprising “modesty effect” on self-presentation. Subjects presented themselves as both less efficient and less sociable under high dependency than under low. These findings are discussed in the light of previous research on ingratiation tactics.     

Long-term value change initiated by computer feedback.

To determine whether value change can be induced by a computer rather than a human agent and whether value change can be induced even when target values are not preselected for experimental treatment, subjects first filled out the Rokeach Value Survey and then obtained information from a computer enabling them to compare their own value rankings with those previously obtained for various reference groups. Experimental subjects exposed to computer feedback showed, first, significant changes in value systems 2 months afterward whereas control subjects showed no such changes. Second, value system change was significantly greater among those experimental subjects whose value rankings were on the whole more discrepant from those of positive reference groups. Third, rankings of certain values concerning achievement, peace, and egalitarianism were affected in a 2-month period following the treatment. These findings are interpreted within a broader theoretical framework about the conditions leading to long-term cognitive and behavioral change.     

Effects of passive interpersonal light touch during walking on postural control responses: An exploratory study

The effects of passive interpersonal light touch (PILT) on postural stability can be observed through improved postural coordination through haptic feedback from the contact provider to the contact receiver while walking. It is unclear, however, whether PILT affects the contact receiver's detailed physical responses, such as muscle activity, body sway, and joint movements. In this study, surface electromyography and an inertial measurement unit were used simultaneously to explore changes in walking speed and control responses induced by PILT. We evaluated fourteen healthy participants for their walking speed and physical responses under two walking conditions: no-touch (NT) and PILT. As a physical response during walking, we measured muscle activity (rectus femoris, semitendinosus, tibialis anterior, and soleus muscles), body sway (pelvis and neck), and joint angles (direction of hip, knee, and ankle joint movements). In PILT condition, fingertip contact force was measured while the contact provider touched the third level of the recipient's lumbar spine. In comparison with the NT condition, PILT condition increased walking speed and decreased body sway on neck position. There were significant correlations between walking speed and neck sway regarding NT and PILT change values. Passive haptic information to the contact receiver may assist in the smooth shift of the center of gravity position during gait through interpersonal postural coordination. These findings suggest that PILT may provide an efficient and stable gait.     

Predicting consistent psychological test item responses: A comparison of models

The efficacy of four models for predicting the stability of a given individual's test item responses on a structured inventory was examined. Two models were based on item characteristics alone and predicted that an individual would be most likely to change responses to items with moderate endorsement probabilities, or with moderate social desirability scale values. Two other prediction models incorporated individual differences in the perception of item characteristics by predicting that unstable items would have relatively long response latencies for an individual, or would be near an individual's threshold for responding desirably to items. Results from two studies yielded support for the following conclusions: (a) a person's test item responses are relatively stable over short time intervals; (b) items to which a person will show response changes on retest can be identified to a statistically significant degree; (c) the models based on response latencies constituted in both studies a significantly better predictor than the other models examined. The implications of these results for the threshold model were discussed as were the practical and theoretical applications of the response latency-item stability relationship at the level of an individual's test protocol.