算法拒绝的三维动机理论

算法拒绝意指尽管算法通常能比人类做出更准确的决策, 但人们依然更偏好人类决策的现象。算法拒绝的三维动机理论归纳了算法主体怀疑、道德地位缺失和人类特性湮没这三个主要原因, 分别对应信任、责任和掌控三种心理动机, 并对应改变算法拒绝的三种可行方案: 提高人类对算法的信任度, 强化算法的主体责任, 探索个性化算法设计以突显人对算法决策的控制力。未来研究可进一步以更社会性的视角探究算法拒绝的发生边界和其他可能动机。     

A phase transition model for the speed-accuracy trade-off in response time experiments

Most models of response time (RT) in elementary cognitive tasks implicitly assume that the speed-accuracy trade-off is continuous: When payoffs or instructions gradually increase the level of speed stress, people are assumed to gradually sacrifice response accuracy in exchange for gradual increases in response speed. This trade-off presumably operates over the entire range from accurate but slow responding to fast but chance-level responding (i.e., guessing). In this article, we challenge the assumption of continuity and propose a phase transition model for RTs and accuracy. Analogous to the fast guess model (Ollman, 1966), our model postulates two modes of processing: a guess mode and a stimulus-controlled mode. From catastrophe theory, we derive two important predictions that allow us to test our model against the fast guess model and against the popular class of sequential sampling models. The first prediction--hysteresis in the transitions between guessing and stimulus-controlled behavior--was confirmed in an experiment that gradually changed the reward for speed versus accuracy. The second prediction--bimodal RT distributions--was confirmed in an experiment that required participants to respond in a way that is intermediate between guessing and accurate responding.     

A three-dimensional biomechanical comparison between turning strategies during the stance phase of walking

Two main strategies for turning exist, the step and spin turns. A three-dimensional analytical comparison between these strategies has not been reported in the literature. Establishing differences between the two strategies is important if providing gait-training advice to clinical populations. The study is the first to compare 90 degrees spin and step turns on the basis of three-dimensional kinematic and kinetic analysis. The turns were free of constraints, thus participants knew when to turn resulting in feed-forward control. Two separate and distinct spin turn sub-strategies were used, the 'ipsilateral crossover' and 'ipsilateral pivot'. These turns required increased range of motion (RoM) in the transverse plane and greater muscular demand than the step turn. The step turn provided a number of advantages over the spin turns, such as keeping a wide base of support, it did not require increased co-ordination, RoM out of the sagittal plane and moments were generally less than the spin turns and no more demanding than straight gait. Further work involving many more participants is required to validate these initial findings.     

Clinical relationships with forensic clients: A three-dimensional model

This paper considers the clinical relationship with clients in mandatory treatment. In several countries, clients found guilty of committing a sexual or violent offense (often resulting in a jail sentence) are obliged by law to meet a psychotherapist. This mandatory treatment occurs both during the time in jail and in the community. The clinical relationship with these clients is a complex process involving the therapist, the client, and the courts. In this paper we describe some common factors that can facilitate or hinder the therapist's work in this situation.     

A Simon effect for depth in three-dimensional displays

We investigated whether the Simon effect occurs for the depth dimension in a 3-dimensional display. In Experiment 1, participants executed discriminative responses to 2 stimuli, a cross and a sphere, both 3-dimensional, which were perceived to be located near or far with respect to the participant's body. The response keys were located near and far along the participant's midline. Apparent stimulus spatial location (near or far) was irrelevant to the task. Results showed a depth Simon effect, attributable to the apparent stimulus spatial location. Experiment 2 replicated Experiment 1 with a different procedure. The 2 stimuli, a triangle and a rectangle, were 2-dimensional and were perceived as being located near or far from the participant's midline; the response keys were located near and far along the participant's midline. Results showed again the depth Simon effect. Experiment 3 was a control condition in which the 2 stimuli, drawings of a lamp and of a chair, had the same size, regardless of whether they appeared to be near or far. The depth Simon effect was replicated. A distribution analysis on data of Experiment 3 showed that the Simon effect increased as reaction times became longer. In Experiment 4, the position of the 2 stimuli, a circle and a cross, varied on the horizontal (right or left) dimension, whereas the position of the 2 responses varied along the depth (near or far) dimension. No Simon effect was found.     

A technique for making realistic three-dimensional images of objects

Two 151.8-cm-diam semicircular parabolic mirrors of optical quality are the essential components of an apparatus that creates highly realistic three-dimensional images of objects. The apparatus is being used to explore the relationship between vision and touch in infancy by creating a discrepancy between what is seen (a tangible-looking object) and what is felt. Previous attempts to study intersensory coordination in this manner have failed due to lack of realistic images. Other uses for the apparatus include the creation of illusory surfaces to study the development of expectations about the tangible surface properties of visible objects.     

Note: A statistical problem in testing invariance of movement using the phase plane model

Invariant positions on a phase plane of joint angular position and velocity have been proposed as a means by which interlimb coordination may be achieved. This note identifies a problem in the testing, using conventional statistics, of hypotheses derived using the phase plane model. A possible solution is proposed based on directional statistics. Conclusions regarding phase angle invariance, which are based on conventional statistics, must be viewed with some caution.     

A locus problem involving the three-dimensional city-block metric

In connection with multidimensional scaling, representations have been considered of the form abDcd ← ?(f(a), f(b)) ≦ ?(f(c), f(d)), for all a, b, c, d ∈ A, where A is a nonvoid finite set, D is a four-place relation on A, f is a function from A into Euclidean n-space, $\text{R}{}^{\mathrm{n}}$, and ? is a metric in $\text{R}{}^{\mathrm{n}}$. For particular metrics there exist finite universal axiomatizations which are necessary and sufficient for the above representation. On the other hand, it is known that no such axiomatizations can be given for either the supremum metric or the ordinary Euclidean metric. Methods for showing this apply easily to the city-block metrics in $\text{R}{}^1$ and $\text{R}{}^2$. This article describes a computer-aided verification of a locus result which shows the impossibility of finite universal axiomatizability for the case of the city-block metric in $\text{R}{}^3$. The result was obtained by dealing with 21,780 cases, each of which involved a set of 10 equations in 12 unknowns along with a related set of inequalities.     

A turnover model for the Mexican maquiladoras

Existing turnover models have been developed and tested almost exclusively in Anglo cultures. Thus, there is reason to question whether these models apply to workers elsewhere. We addressed this question using as participants 47 Mexican maquiladora workers. Through interview responses analyzed using a variation of grounded theory-building, we inductively created a model of voluntary turnover with research propositions. We then compared the new model to traditional turnover models, concluding that many of their constructs and mechanisms are familiar in the maquiladoras. However, the cultural and economic environment perceived by the workers help determine the precise antecedents, their salience, and the strength of their linkages with turnover. Finally, we suggest how turnover research might be extended to better apply to workers in other cultures.     

The General Health Questionnaire and Eysenck's three-dimensional model of personality

A sample of 115 men and women between the ages of 20 and 60 completed the 30-item General Health Questionnaire together with the short-form Revised Eysenck Personality Questionnaire. The data indicate psychological distress so assessed is correlated .43 (p <.001) with Neuroticism and -.26 (p <.01) with Introversion but is unrelated to Psychoticism scores.     

A generalized strategy for measuring performance in the velocity-position phase plane

ABSTRACT Recent work has proposed the reformulation of smoothness measures derived from standard integrated squared jerk, as a function of position, not time. However, its promulgation was in the context of monotonic excursion data extracted from single degree-of-freedom (DOF) movements; the result was a formulation of a phase smoothness measure with limited generalizability. Here, we present a complete methodology for implementing the phase smoothness measure in arbitrary datasets, i.e. for multi-DOF movements with no assumptions of monotonicity in the kinematic profile. Additional suggestions are made for best practices.     

A multidimensional scaling model for the size-weight illusion

The kinds of individual differences in perceptions permitted by the weighted euclidean model for multidimensional scaling (e.g., INDSCAL) are much more restricted than those allowed by Tucker's Three-mode Multidimensional Scaling (TMMDS) model or Carroll's Idiosyncratic Scaling (IDIOSCAL) model. Although, in some situations the more general models would seem desirable, investigators have been reluctant to use them because they are subject to transformational indeterminacies which complicate interpretation. In this article, we show how these indeterminacies can be removed by constructing specific models of the phenomenon under investigation. As an example of this approach, a model of the size-weight illusion is developed and applied to data from two experiments, with highly meaningful results. The same data are also analyzed using INDSCAL. Of the two solutions, only the one obtained by using the size-weight model allows examination of individual differences in the strength of the illusion; INDSCAL can not represent such differences. In this sample, however, individual differences in illusion strength turn out to be minor. Hence the INDSCAL solution, while less informative than the size-weight solution, is nonetheless easily interpretable.This paper is based on the first author's doctoral dissertation at the Department of Psychology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. The aid of Professor Ledyard R Tucker is gratefully acknowledged.     

A simple model for the utility of gambling

A model of the utility of gambling is presented in a modified von Neumann-Morgenstern format. Axioms imply a utility function that preserves preferences between sure things and between gambles. The addition of a utility of gambling term to the expected utility of a gamble preserves preference comparisons between gambles and sure things. Aspects of the utility of gambling are noted, and comparisons are made to standard concepts of risk attitudes.The author is indebted to Joseph Sani for valuable discussions on the topic of this paper.     

A model for the analysis of multiple strategies

In many decision problems the decision-maker must ask a series of questions or select cues relevant to but prior to the decision. There are many strategies which would prescribe an order for asking such questions or selecting such cues. It is the purpose of the paper to describe a manner in which the strategy or strategies of the decision-maker can be analyzed. From this model can be derived limits corresponding to thepossible use of a particular strategy, and theeffective or observed use of the strategy or strategies by the decision-maker.Preparation of this paper was supported in part by Fellowship 1-F1-MH-24, 324-01, from the National Institute of Mental Health. This paper comprises Publication Number 63 of the Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado. The author would like to thank K. R. Hammond and D. W. Stilson for many helpful comments and suggestions.