Gender differences in the structure and support characteristics of black adolescents' social networks

This study explores gender differences in the social network characteristics of 390 Black American adolescents with a mean age of 14.8 Each adolescent completed the Social Network Record (SNR), which yields scores representing the organizational/demographic structure and the quality of emotional support in the network. It was hypothesized that males and females would construct different network profiles. Gender differences in both structural and support characteristics were found. Females indicated that they had more frequent contact with network members, that their network was on average slightly older, and that they tended to see network members in more private settings. Females also estimated that they know more people than males, although there were no differences between males and females in the actual number of network members listed and described. Males were much more likely to report having larger groups of intimate friends than did females. While females tended to nominate family members as role models and were more likely to indicate feeling close to both male and female peers, males indicated overwhelmingly that they felt close to male peers. The differences indicate that male and female adolescents experience very differently structured forms of social support. These results are discussed as they relate to gender differences found in achievement and other indices of competence during adolescence.     

Gender differences in social consequences of perceived overweight in the United States and Australia

This study investigated attitudes about body weight and appearance in a group of young adults. Undergraduate psychology students at the Flinders University of South Australia and at the University of Vermont were asked about their weight and dieting, consciousness about their body, the degree to which their weight had interfered with social activities, their perceptions about the causes of obseity, and their stereotypes about fat and thin men and women. Although 20% of the sample was overweight, 50% of subjects perceived themselves to be overweight to some degree. As expected, weight was a much greater issue for women, who felt more overweight, dieted more, expressed more body consciousness, and reported that weight had interfered more with social activities than did men. Also as expected, Vermont students reported greater frequency of dieting, more concern about weight, and more body consciousness than did students in Australia. Finally, men and women in both cultures stereotyped obese targets significantly more negatively than they did nonobese targets. The results indicate excessive and maladaptive concerns with weight in general, and among women and U.S. students in particular.     

Gender differences in cross-generation networks

In later life, cross-generational networks are primarily among kin; friends are considered to be of the same cohort. Kin networks are likely to have an integrity of their own, independent of any of their members. Members are likely to share basic values or to avoid issues that might cause conflict or estrangement. Sex differences are profound. Mother-daughter bonds are both strongest throughout life and most complex, serving to link household units into modified extended family networks. Major life events like marriage of a daughter, birth of a child, or illness of a parent alternatively loosen or strengthen these bonds. Critical conceptual/methodological problems abound, such as definitions of the basic constructs like “closeness,” and “affect.”     

Beyond depression: Gender differences in normal adolescents' emotional experiences

Adolescents (N=262) in the fifth, seventh, ninth, and eleventh grades reported the frequency, intensity, and duration of their experiences of 12 emotions and the situations during which they occurred. The first three scales of emotion combined to produce the emotion saliency score. Girls reported higher saliences of surprise, sad, self-hostility, shame, shy, and guilt. Boys reported higher saliency of contempt. Factor analysis of the salient emotions retained the same three factors for both genders: positive emotion, inner-passive, and outer-hostile negative emotions. The loadings for surprise, sad, and anger on each factor suggested within factor gender differences. Most salient emotions were experienced with peers; however, boys experienced both surprise and sadness more often when alone than did girls. There were gender differences in most emotion categories on the events associated with salient emotions. Boys found activities and achievement, and girls found affiliation, to be emotionally salient. These data suggest that gender differences in emotion are pervasive rather than confined to depressive emotion and include differences in the organizational properties of emotion.This study was based upon data collected for the first author's dissertation under the direction of the second author. Preliminary analyses were presented at Eastern Psychological Association, Crystal City, Maryland, 1987.     

Cultural differences in perceived social norms and social anxiety

Cultural considerations in social anxiety are a rarely investigated topic although it seems likely that differences between countries in social norms may relate to the extent of social anxiety. The present study investigated individuals' personal and perceived cultural norms and their relation to social anxiety and fear of blushing. A total of 909 participants from eight countries completed vignettes describing social situations and evaluated the social acceptability of the behavior of the main actor both from their own, personal perspective as well as from a cultural viewpoint. Personal and cultural norms showed somewhat different patterns in comparison between types of countries (individualistic/collectivistic). According to reported cultural norms, collectivistic countries were more accepting toward socially reticent and withdrawn behaviors than was the case in individualistic countries. In contrast, there was no difference between individualistic and collectivistic countries on individuals' personal perspectives regarding socially withdrawn behavior. Collectivistic countries also reported greater levels of social anxiety and more fear of blushing than individualistic countries. Significant positive relations occurred between the extent to which attention-avoiding behaviors are accepted in a culture and the level of social anxiety or fear of blushing symptoms. These results provide initial evidence that social anxiety may be related to different cultural norms across countries.     

Structural gender differences in perceived social support

Gender is an important influence on support-relevant social interactions, however findings of studies on gender differences in social support are not definitive. Although differences between men and women in the various social support measures have been found in numerous studies, neither the cause nor the explanatory process is known. This study examines gender differences in the dimensionality of social support. A large sample (N=3210) from the general population of women (60%) and men aged between 18 and 65 years old (Mean AGE=34.1) responded to a brief scale with items assessing the distinct functions of the perceived availability of social support. Confirmatory factor analyses yielded one factor in the women's sample that measures global social support perceived, and two in the men's. The first factor in the men's sample measures emotional support (providing empathy, caring, validation of self-worth), and the second measures instrumental support (e.g. practical assistance or financial aid). We concluded that there are gender differences in the structure of perceived social support and that these differences can be explained by socialization experiences and social roles associated with gender.     

Gender differences in perceived physical self-efficacy among older individuals

Gender differences in perceived physical self-efficacy were investigated in 90 subjects, stratified by sex and age (45 to 54 yr., 55 to 64 yr., and 65 to 74 yr.). Application of the scale by Ryckman, Robbins, Thornton, and Cantrell yielded scores for total perceived physical self-efficacy, perceived physical ability, and confidence in physical self-presentation. Men showed greater efficacy than women on the first two scales. There was no evidence of an age effect in perceived physical self-efficacy.     

Gender differences in autonomous and social achievement orientations

This research examined gender differences in orientations toward autonomous and social achievement. Three independent samples of subjects (total N= 359 males and 574 females) completed measures of achievement orientation (including Strumpfer's [1975] Autonomous Achievement Values and Social Achievement Values scales) and relevant cognitive, affective, and behavioral variables. Correlational and factor analyses clearly identified distinct autonomous and social achievement factors for both men and women in each of the samples. Examination of the correlates of achievement orientation indicated that whereas an autonomous achievement orientation is similarly expressed in males and females, there are considerable sex differences in the expression of an orientation toward social achievement. In particular, a social achievement orientation was associated with concerns over social approval and responsiveness to social influence among males, but was generally unrelated to these factors among females. Findings are discussed in terms of several recent hypotheses concerning the effects of sex role norms on the development and expression of achievement needs in men and women.     

Gender differences in social support among older adults

The purpose of this study was to determine whether exposure to life stress can help explain gender differences in the use of social support. Findings from a longitudinal study suggest that as the number of stressful life events increase, elderly men and women are equally likely to become more involved in their social network, while gender differences emerge only in response to chronic financial strain. Further analysis indicates that elderly women are more likely than elderly men to report that the support they received increased their feelings of personal control.     

Gender differences in social support and physical health

A large body of prospective data has accumulated linking social support to health, and most social scientists agree that low levels of support are associated with poor physical and mental health. Unfortunately, most of the research has been limited to White men. When women and people of color are included in the designs, the relationships between social support and physical health are more complicated. Prospective population-based studies provide evidence that low support is associated with increased risk of mortality in women. However, in several studies, results indicated that, for specific age groups, women with high social support have increased risk of mortality. Factors that may contribute to the observed gender differences in the social support-physical health relationship are discussed. Future research should include adequate numbers of women and more sophisticated measures of social support to move the field forward.     

Ethnic differences in adolescents' mental distress, social stress, and resources

Limited data on ethnic group differences among young adolescents exist regarding the prevalence of mental distress, social stress, and resources. The aim of this cross-sectional study was to examine ethnic differences among African American (AA), European American (EA), Hispanic American (HA), and Asian American adolescents in mental distress, social stress, and resources. A total of 316 adolescents completed the self-administered questionnaire: The DSD, Somatic Symptom Scale, SAFE-C, FES, Coping, and Rosenberg's Self-Esteem Scale. The findings revealed that (1) Asian Americans and HAs reported significantly higher scores on social stress and mental distress and lower scores on resources than EAs; (2) Compared to EAs, AAs and HAs were more likely to experience social stress (2.2 < or = OR < or = 4.3), and HAs are more likely to have suicidal ideation (OR = 2.04; 95% CI = 1.04-3.98). Findings highlighted the importance of understanding the role of social stress in the development of adolescents' mental distress. Identified ethnic minority adolescents are vulnerable groups who require additional research and attention from health care providers.     

Gender differences in social cognitive determinants of exercise adoption

Gender differences in lifestyle-related mortality and morbidity suggest a need to investigate gender-specificity of health behaviour change process and factors influencing it. We tested whether changes in self-efficacy beliefs and planning, as well as the level of social support predict change in exercise. Finnish men and women, aged 50–65 years, at an increased risk for type 2 diabetes were recruited from health care centres to participate in the Good Ageing in Lahti Region (GOAL) Lifestyle Implementation Trial. Psychosocial factors were measured with questionnaires and exercise with 7-day physical activity diaries at baseline and at 3 months. At baseline, no gender differences were found in self-efficacy and planning, but men reported receiving more social support than women. At 3 months, women reported having formed more action plans for changing their exercise routines than men. Among women, increase in self-efficacy and planning predicted increase in exercise. Among men, changes in planning played a less significant role. The more salient role of planning for women than for men, and the fact that women receive less social support, may reflect life circumstances allowing less spontaneous lifestyle decisions and a lower acceptance of lifestyle changes by their social environment.     

Gender differences in the social problem-solving performance of adolescents

Compared to other cognitive measures, social problem solving has received little attention in research on gender differences. In the present study, the Means-Ends Problem-Solving Procedure and the Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ) were administered to 207 adolescents to examine social problem-solving skills as a function of subject gender, PAQ type, and gender of protagonist. Hypotheses were that superior problem solving would occur (a) for androgynous and masculine PAQ types and (b) when subject gender and/or PAQ type corresponded with protagonist gender. Results failed to corroborate these patterns, but indicated a clear overall advantage for females over males. A follow-up multiple-regression analysis showed this effect to be stable after controlling for English level. In a supplementary analysis, PAQ breakdowns were compared for the present sample and for one tested in a different region seven years earlier. Overall, the research findings imply that fewer adolescents today are likely to identify with traditional feminine roles, and that sex-related personality traits have, in general, a relatively limited impact on social problem-solving skills.     

The role of perceived social support and dysfunctional attitudes in predicting Taiwanese adolescents' depressive tendency

This study examined the moderating effect of perceived social support on the association of dysfunctional attitudes with depression among Taiwanese adolescents. Seventh graders (N = 458) completed the Dysfunctional Attitudes Scale (Weisman & Beck, 1978), Perceived Social Support from Family and Friends (Procidano & Heller, 1983), Stressful Life Events (Chiu, 1988), and Children's Depression Inventory (Kovacs, 1981). The results indicated that perceived social support from friends moderates the relationship between dysfunctional attitudes and depression, implying that as peer support increases, the positive relationship between dysfunctional attitudes and depression weakens.     

Gender differences in social support for socially anxious individuals

Given that social anxiety disorder is a common, chronic, debilitating disorder and socially anxious women appear to have different experiences related to social development and social support than men, it is essential that the gender differences in social anxiety and social support be understood. The present study examined perceived social support quantity and satisfaction in 23 women and 28 men seeking treatment for social anxiety disorder. Contrary to expectations, men and women did not differ on measures of social support. However, younger, unmarried women reported having smaller social support networks and less satisfaction with their social support networks than older, married women. Analyses of socially anxious men did not reveal such a pattern. The current study provides preliminary evidence that younger, single women have social support networks that are less satisfying than the social support networks of older, married women. Inclusion of social support modules within a cognitive behavioral treatment approach for social anxiety disorder may be warranted, particularly for young, unmarried women.     

Gender differences in predicting loneliness from social network characteristics

In two studies we examined gender differences in predicting loneliness from measures of social network structure and a measure of perceived social support. The results showed that social network characteristics, especially density, were consistently better predictors of perceived loneliness for men than for women. Study 1 used the traditional measure of network density in which the number of relationships among network members was determined. Study 2 used a newly developed index of density that assessed the extent of closeness of relationships between pairs of network members. Uniformly, male subjects with more highly interconnected, cohesive sets of friends reported themselves to be less lonely, whereas density had little relation to loneliness in female subjects. These results are discussed as possibly indicating that men and women use different standards in evaluating whether they are lonely. It is suggested that men may use more group-oriented criteria in evaluating loneliness, whereas women focus more on the qualities of dyadic relationships.     

The assessment of social intimacy

Research exploring the psychological importance of closeness with others has been hampered by the absence of a reliable and valid measure of this variable. The development of the Miller Social Intimacy Scale (MSIS), a 17-item measure of the maximum level of intimacy currently experienced, is presented. Evidence for internal consistency and test-retest reliability as well as for convergent, discriminant and construct validity is discussed in the context of the need for further scientific exploration of this important phenomenon.     

Relations among early adolescents' parent-adolescent attachment, perceived social competence, and friendship quality

To assess whether the relation between attachment and friendship quality may be explained by social competence, 113 students in Grades 7 and 8 from the Baltimore metropolitan area completed self-report questionnaires on the variables of interest. In hierarchical regression analyses, both maternal Affective Quality of Attachment and the interaction of School with paternal Affective Quality of Attachment predicted social competence. Also, the interaction of School with paternal Affective Quality of Attachment predicted negative friendship features, whereas social competence predicted positive friendship features. These findings provide support for a pathway between adolescents' attachment to both parents and adolescents' perceived social competence and, in turn, their friendship quality.