Sex differences in Group Embedded Figures Test performance in relation to sex-role,state and trait anxiety

The Group Embedded Figures Test of field dependence (GEFT) was administered to first-year psychology students who were then assigned to four sex-role classes depending on whether or not they exceeded median masculinity and femininity scores on the Bem Sex-Role Inventory. Males achieved significantly higher GEFT scores but there were no significant sex-role effects. In a second study, other students were assigned to field dependent (DEP) and independent (INDEP) groups according to whether or not they exceeded the median GEFT performance for each sex. Between-group comparisons were then made of scores on the state and trait scales of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. In neither case was there a significant difference between the DEP and INDEP groups. However, for males only, there was a significant negative correlation between state and GEFT scores as well as a significant positive correlation between the two anxiety scales. Although the latter results suggested a sex difference in how the GEFT demands are perceived, it was concluded that neither sex-role nor state or trait anxiety could adequately account for consistently better male GEFT performance.     

Narrative Sexual Identity Therapy

Sexual identity therapy is an alternative to the two polarized positions of sexual reorientation therapy and gay-integrative therapy for clients who present with sexual identity concerns. This alternative model focuses on sexual identity—the private and public acts of identifying and communicating one's sexual preferences—and how the decision to do so is informed by dominant stories about what sexual attractions mean to a client. As one expression of sexual identity therapy, this paper presents narrative sexual identity therapy, an approach that utilizes a narrative therapeutic approach and techniques to facilitate exploration of dominant narratives and counter-narratives that speak to sexual identity with the goal of achieving a synthesis that reflects felt congruence of clients' beliefs/values and behavior/identity.     

The Sexual Compulsivity Scale: further development and use with HIV-positive persons

We examined the reliability and validity of the Sexual Compulsivity Scale for use in assessing HIV-positive men and women. Measures collected from 287 men and women recruited from the community, the majority of whom were African American and over the age of 30, showed that the Sexual Compulsivity Scale was reliable for men (alpha = .89) and women (alpha = .92). Correlations with measures of sexual behaviors and numbers of sex partners supported the concurrent validity of the Sexual Compulsivity Scale for men and women. Results of discriminant function analyses that included participant age, use of nonalcohol drugs, the Sexual Compulsivity Scale, and scores on measures of trait anxiety, obsessive-compulsiveness, future pessimism, cognitive depression, and borderline personality characteristics showed that sexual compulsivity clearly discriminated between persons with 1 or no sex partners and persons with multiple partners in the past 3 months, for both men and women, suggesting evidence for criterion-related validity. Associations between sexual compulsivity scores and other markers of psychopathology showed different patterns for men and women; sexual compulsivity was associated with indexes of psychopathology in men but not in women. We conclude that the Sexual Compulsivity Scale is reliable and valid in assessing men and women infected with HIV, although sexual compulsivity may present differently between genders in relation to other forms of psychopathology.     

Relation of sex and gender role to love,sexual attitudes,and self-esteem

One theory of love (J. A. Lee, The Colors of Love: An Exploration of the Ways of Loving, Don Mills, Ontario: New Press, 1973) assumes at least six different attitudinal orientations toward love. Based on Lee's approach, recent research (e.g., C. Hendrick & S. Hendrick, “A Theory and Method of Love,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1986, 50, pp. 392–402) has found consistent sex differences in love attitudes. Other research has found comparable sex differences in sexual permissiveness and other sexual attitudes. The present study explored the possibility that gender role orientation might be related to differences in love and sexual attitudes. A sample of 286 college students completed the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI), Love Attitudes Scale, Sexual Attitudes Scale, and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. Correlational analyses revealed many significant associations among love and sexual attitudes, self-esteem, and masculinity and femininity. Subjects were also classified according to gender role as androgynous, masculine, feminine, or undifferentiated, according to BSRI scores. Analyses of variance showed effects for both sex of subjects and gender role orientation on several of the dependent measures. The pattern of the results suggested that sex-stereotyped couples may have difficulties in romantic relationships because of the discrepancies in their love and sexual attitudes. An argument was made in support of the recent trend toward a multidimensional concept of gender role orientation.     

The relationship between state anxiety and depressed mood: A validity study

The validity of the A-State Scale of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory and the Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale was assessed using data from a general health survey. Depression and anxiety states were found to coexist, however, evidence from a factor analysis, showing items from the two tests loaded on separate factors, demonstrated that these states can be measured independently. Both the A-State and the Zung Scales were found to comprise two factors, and for each scale, one factor consisted of positively phrased items, and the other of negative items. The implications of these findings for the construct validity of the two scales are discussed.     

A Research Inquiry into Some American Women's Sexual Concerns and Problems

Abstract

The New View of Women's Sexual Problems is supported by findings of the 1993-94 Ellison/Zilbergeld sexuality survey of 2,632 mostly white, college-educated women born 1905-1977 (Ellison, 2000; see questionnaire at www.womenssexualities.com). Sexual experiences of women with previous year sexual partners are reported. The most important sexual concerns or problems in the previous year of 1,637 women are categorized: 34% desire/frequency (low sexual desire, desire discrepancy); 28.5% physical responsiveness (female arousal, orgasm; male partners' erectile difficulties, ejaculatory control); 16% lovemaking (sexual technique); 7.5% finding a partner; < 5% sexual relationship, fertility, pregnancy, STDs/safe sex, the woman's body/health, non-monogamy, orientation; 547 others reported none. Exemplary quotes from respondents are included. Sex therapy for low sexual desire is addressed. Recommended solutions emphasize individual differences and the multidimensionality of sexuality.     

Exploring the relationships between trait emotional intelligence and objective socio‐emotional outcomes in childhood

Background Trait emotional intelligence (trait EI or trait emotional self‐efficacy) is a constellation of emotion‐related self‐perceptions and dispositions located at the lower levels of personality hierarchies. This paper examines the validity of this construct, as operationalized by the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire‐Child Form (TEIQue‐CF), in primary schoolchildren. Aims The main aim was to examine the construct validity of trait EI in middle and late childhood by exploring its relationships with cognitive ability, emotion perception, and social behaviour. Sample The sample comprised 140 children aged between 8 and 12 years (M = 9.26 years, SD = 1.00 year; 63 girls) from two English state primary schools. Method Pupils completed the TEIQue‐CF, the standard progressive matrices (SPM), the guess who peer assessment, the social skills training (SST) test, and the assessment of children's emotion skills (ACES) during formal class periods. The procedure took approximately two hours with a short break between assessments. Results Trait EI scores were positively related both to peer‐rated prosocial behaviour and to overall peer competence. They also predicted emotion perception accuracy beyond overall peer competence. As hypothesized in trait EI theory, the construct was unrelated to IQ (Raven's matrices) and academic performance. Conclusions Trait EI is successfully operationalized through the TEIQue‐CF and has important and multifaceted implications for the socialization of primary schoolchildren.     

The strategic value of essentialism

Social essentialism—the belief that individuals contain an underlying essence determined by the social categories they belong to—has generally been regarded as a harmful cognitive process that results in prejudice and other forms of injustice at the group level. Trait essentialism, also termed a fixed mindset—the belief that people's trait levels are determined and relatively unchangeable—has been construed as a parallel impediment to self‐improvement at the individual level. However, each of these domains contains findings that do not fit this narrative, suggesting that such essentialized thinking is not always detrimental at either the group or individual level and that its effects may instead depend on motivation and context. Incorporating advances in research on moral judgment and identity allow for a reconciliation of the variable effects of social and trait essentialism. In some instances, essentialism can be a strategy for reducing blame over uncontrollable aspects of individuals and groups and for identity formation.     

BMI,age, Mate Value,and Intrasexual Competition in Chilean Women

Attractiveness is the most important component of women intrasexual competition and it certainly has an impact in female’s perceived mate value (i.e., the value of an individual to the opposite sex as a potential mate). In the realm of intrasexual competition women are eager to emphasize their attractiveness and compete with rivals displaying these cues. Accordingly, age is an important feature of women’s appeal to the opposite sex; youth is highly valued by men, and is perceived by women as an important component of their attractiveness. Another trait that is a reliable cue of health and fertility is Body Mass Index (BMI). A large body of literature has associated BMI to female attractiveness. However, more information is necessary about the associations of BMI and age with mate value, and female intrasexual competition. In the present research we report two studies that examined the associations of BMI and age with estimates of self-perceived mate value and intrasexual competition in Chilean women (18–39 years). More specifically, we hypothesized inverse relationships of BMI and age with mate value (N?=?234), and intrasexual competition (N?=?308). We found partial support to our propositions. The results revealed inverse associations between BMI, mate value and mating success, but BMI with intrasexual competition were not related. In contrast, age had a strong and negative effect on intrasexual competition. We discuss our results within the framework of Evolutionary Psychology and consider the central role of attractiveness (estimated from BMI and age) in the mating strategies of women.     

Gender role identity from an ego developmental perspective

This study, designed to respond to current limitations in gender role identity measurement, presents a conceptual and empirical approach to gender role identity that relies on ego developmental theory. To begin the process of construct validation of this approach to gender role identity, gender role identity was examined in relation to ego development, gender, and marital status. Gender role identity was measured via an interview adapted from Waterman and by the Bem Sex Role Inventory. Ego development was assessed via Loevinger's Sentence Completion Test of Ego Development. The sample consisted of 107 young adult men and women, married and single. In support of construct validity, the gender role interview was found to be correlated with the ego development measure. In support of discriminant validity, different patterns of correlates by gender were found between the gender role interview and the Bem Sex Role Inventory.     

Masculinity and femininity: The role of desirability in the relationships among measures based on self-concept and personality traits

With data gathered from 96 female college students, intercorrelations were examined among self-concept ratings of masculinity and femininity, and scales from two personality-trait measures of masculinity and femininity—the Adjective Check List (ACL) and the Extended Personal Attributes Questionnaire (EPAQ). The sign and magnitude of the correlations between pairs of measures were successfully predicted on the basis of the congruence between measures of both the gender relevance and the desirability of the self-rated traits comprising each measure. The desirability of the trait items employed in self-report personality-trait scales of masculinity and femininity evidently introduces methods variance that can either inhibit or potentiate the relationship with other scales composed predominantly of either desirable or undesirable traits. When balanced for the desirability of trait items, personality-trait scores of masculinity and femininity were substantially inversely correlated with each other, and only marginally correlated with self-concept ratings of masculinity and femininity, but these correlations remained in the anticipated directions. This result is consistent with the findings of Pedhazur and Tetenbaum (“Bem Sex Role Inventory: A Theoretical and Methodological Critique,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1979, 37, 996–1016), and supports Spence's (Masculinity, Femininity, and Gender-Related Traits: A Conceptual Analysis and Critique of Current Research,” In B. A. Maher and W. B. Maher (Eds.), Progress in Experimental Research, Vol. XIII, Normal Personality Processes, New York: Academic Press, 1984) position that personality traits should be viewed as only one of many possible referents for gender/sex role identity.     

Anxiety and locus of conflict in emotionally disturbed children

The State Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children (STAIC) and the Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale (CMAS) were administered to 50 emotionally disturbed children (40 males and 10 females). In addition, ratings on a Locus of Conflict Rating Scale were obtained from their special education teachers. Significant correlations were obtained between all anxiety measures. However, anxiety, as measured by the CMAS, A State and A Trait, was not significantly correlated with the ratings of internalization, externalization, or the total maladjustment index. Girls reported greater anxiety than boys on the CMAS and the STAIC A Trait scale, while boys were rated as significantly higher on the internalization and externalization scales, and in total maladjustment.     

Heightened male aggression toward sexualized women following romantic rejection: The mediating role of sex goal activation

Research from a variety of disciplines suggests a positive relationship between Western cultural sexualization and women's likelihood of suffering harm. In the current experiment, 157 young men were romantically rejected by a sexualized or non‐sexualized woman then given the opportunity to blast the woman with loud bursts of white noise. We tested whether the activation of sexual goals in men would mediate the relationship between sexualization and aggressive behavior after romantic rejection. We also tested whether behaving aggressively toward a woman after romantic rejection would increase men's feelings of sexual dominance. Results showed that interacting with a sexualized woman increased men's sex goals. Heightened sex goal activation, in turn, predicted increased aggression after romantic rejection. This result remained significant despite controlling for the effects of trait aggressiveness and negative affect. The findings suggest that heightened sex goal activation may lead men to perpetrate aggression against sexualized women who reject them.

     

Validity of two measures of anxiety in children

The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children (STAICj and the Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale (CMAS) were administered to 60 emotionally disturbed children and 60 normal children matched on mental age. Emotionally disturbed children obtained significantly higher scores on the A-State and A-Trait portions of the STAIC and the anxiety portion of the CMAS, while normal children obtained significantly higher scores on the Lie scale of the CMAS. Cutoff scores which maximized the discrimination between normal and emotionally disturbed children were established. Results are interpreted as demonstrating the potential usefulness of these measures for screening.     

Male Role Norm Endorsement and Sexism Predict Heterosexual College Men’s Attitudes Toward Casual Sex,Intoxicated Sexual Contact,and Casual Sex

This study examined whether gender roles, particularly male role beliefs and sexism, may underlie self-reported attitudes toward and participation in casual sex and intoxication prior to sexual contact in a sample of heterosexual undergraduate men from the United States. We utilized online survey methods to examine whether men’s (N?=?223 from a large mid-Atlantic University) endorsement of traditional masculinity (power and status, toughness, and anti-femininity) and sexist attitudes regarding women’s roles (hostile, benevolent) were related to engagement in casual sex (i.e., number of one-time-only sex partners), and whether masculinity was related to intoxicated sexual contact (i.e., propensity to consume alcohol prior to sexual contact). Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) revealed that, as expected, endorsement of the toughness male role norm was positively associated with favorable attitudes toward casual sex, and endorsement of benevolent sexism was negatively associated with favorable attitudes toward casual sex. Favorable attitudes toward casual sex, in turn, were positively associated with men’s reported number of casual sex partners, as partially mediated by intoxicated sexual contact. Further, toughness endorsement was positively associated with number of casual sex partners via its positive association with intoxicated sexual contact; whereas power and status demonstrated the opposite, negative pattern. We discuss the contribution of this research to the broader literature on gender roles and sexual behavior and the utility of the findings for interventions aimed at reducing men’s casual sex behavior and intoxication prior to sexual contact.     

Sticking with the nice guy: Trait warmth information impairs learning and modulates person perception brain network activity

Social learning requires inferring social information about another person, as well as evaluating outcomes. Previous research shows that prior social information biases decision making and reduces reliance on striatal activity during learning (Delgado, Frank, & Phelps, Nature Neuroscience 8 (11): 1611-1618, 2005). A rich literature in social psychology on person perception demonstrates that people spontaneously infer social information when viewing another person (Fiske & Taylor, 2013) and engage a network of brain regions, including the medial prefrontal cortex, temporal parietal junction, superior temporal sulcus, and precuneus (Amodio & Frith, Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 7(4), 268-277, 2006; Haxby, Gobbini, & Montgomery, 2004; van Overwalle Human Brain Mapping, 30, 829–858, 2009). We investigate the role of these brain regions during social learning about well-established dimensions of person perception—trait warmth and trait competence. We test the hypothesis that activity in person perception brain regions interacts with learning structures during social learning. Participants play an investment game where they must choose an agent to invest on their behalf. This choice is guided by cues signaling trait warmth or trait competence based on framing of monetary returns. Trait warmth information impairs learning about human but not computer agents, while trait competence information produces similar learning rates for human and computer agents. We see increased activation to warmth information about human agents in person perception brain regions. Interestingly, activity in person perception brain regions during the decision phase negatively predicts activity in the striatum during feedback for trait competence inferences about humans. These results suggest that social learning may engage additional processing within person perception brain regions that hampers learning in economic contexts.     

The influence of state and trait affect on HIV risk behaviors: a daily diary study of MSM.

OBJECTIVE: To characterize the influence of state and trait affect on HIV risk behaviors. DESIGN: Men who have sex with men (N = 155) completed reports of trait affect and daily reports of affect and sexual behaviors each night for up to 30 days. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Analyses focused on the role of state and trait positive activation (PA), negative activation (NA), anxious arousal (AA), and sexual activation (SA) on sexual risk taking, operationalized as having a sex partner, a partner-related risk composite, and an HIV risk behavior composite. RESULTS: State SA was positively associated with having a sex partner and HIV risk behaviors; trait SA was positively associated with partner-related risk. State AA was negatively associated with having a sex partner and positively associated with HIV risk behaviors. Trait AA had a negative association with partner-related risk and moderated the effects of state AA. State PA was negatively associated with HIV risk behaviors, and trait PA had a main effect on having a sex partner. NA had no significant trait or state effects. CONCLUSION: These data suggest a role for multiple affective states in sexual risk taking. Models of HIV risk-taking behaviors should be extended to include affective processes.     

The Impact of Sexual Orientation on Women's Midlife Experience: A Transition Model Approach

Sexual orientation is an integral part of identity affecting every stage of an individual's development. This literature review examines women's cultural experiences based on sexual orientation and their effect on midlife experience. A developmental model is offered that incorporates sexual orientation as a contextual factor in this developmental stage.     

Sexual harassment in the context of double male dominance

It has been suggested that numerically male-dominated workplaces propagate cultural norms that support sexual bravado, sexual posturing, and the denigration of feminine behaviour (Sbraga & O'Donohue, 2000 Sbraga, T. P. and O'Donohue, W. 2000. Sexual harassment. Annual Review of Sex Research, 11: 258–285. [Taylor & Francis Online] , [Google Scholar]). These cultural norms are features of normative male dominance, which have been shown to increase the risk of sexual harassment. This implies that the effect of numerical male dominance on sexual harassment may be mediated by the level of normative male dominance in the work environment. The aim of this study was to test this assumption. Our sample consisted of 1295 police women, who filled out an Internet questionnaire. The results suggest that normative male dominance indeed mediates the relation between numerical male dominance and sexual harassment. We add to the sexual harassment literature by building on Gruber's concept of double dominance. Our study helps to make clear why women are at greater risk of sexual harassment in work situations where men outnumber women than in more gender-balanced workplaces.