Toward operationalizing a psychoeducational definition of learning disabilities

An operational definition of “learning disabilities” is presented from the standpoint that classificatory psychoeducational definitions must ultimately relate to educational processes. Thus the condition should be described in terms of abilities crucial to educational achievement, and noneducational criteria should not be employed. It is pointed out that the most generally accepted current definition — which identifies children as “learning-disabled” on the basis of behavioral criteria, while excluding others because of etiological and other nonbehavioral factors — overlooks functional similarities among such groups as educable mentally retarded and emotionally disturbed children. These similarities warrant the inclusion under the rubric of “learning-disabled” of some children who may also be grouped within other diagnostic categories. Consequently, the profferred definition is based on a primary concern with day-to-day learning and management issues. Concepts subtended by the definition are operationally defined, and its relationship to programming is discussed.     

Genetics and educational psychology

Background: Molecular genetics, one of the most energetic and exciting areas of science, is slowly but surely coming to educational psychology. Aims: We review recent molecular genetic research on learning disabilities as a sign of things to come in educational psychology. We also consider some misconceptions about genetics that have slowed the acceptance of genetics in educational psychology. Samples: Diverse samples of children with learning disabilities have been studied, primarily in the UK and the USA. Methods: Linkage analysis can detect genes that have large effects on learning disabilities. Association analysis can detect genes of much smaller effect size, which is important because common disorders such as learning disabilities are likely to be influenced by many genes as well as by many environmental factors. Results: For reading disability, replicated linkages have been identified on chromosomes 6, 15 and 18. A gene responsible for a rare type of language impairment has recently been identified. For common language impairment, linkages on chromosomes 16 and 19 have recently been reported. More than 200 genetic disorders, most extremely rare, include mental retardation among their symptoms, and chromosomal abnormalities are a major cause of mental retardation. Conclusions: Although finding specific genes associated with learning disabilities is unlikely to have much of a direct application for teachers in the classroom, such findings will have far‐reaching implications for diagnosis, treatment and prevention of learning disabilities and for research in educational psychology. Educational psychology has been slower to accept evidence for the importance of genetics than other areas of psychology in part because of misconceptions about what it means to say that genetics is important for common complex disorders such as learning disabilities.     

Factor analysis and discriminant analysis of psychoeducational report contents

This study evaluated the psychoeducational reports of 205 children who were referred to the UCLA Neuropsychiatric Hospital for evaluation of academic achievement problems. Factor analysis of the report data indentified a medical factor, a school history factor, and a family factor. Following factor analysis, all three factors as well as measures of cognitive functioning and academic achievement were entered into a discriminant analysis in order to determine which variables, if any, helped predict the educational placement finally to be recommended for each child at the end of the individual psychoeducational work-up. Statistical analysis indicated different results for each of four educational placement options, the greatest predictability being associated with regular classroom placement. Across all placements, the variable that allowed for the greatest accuracy in predicting educational programming recommendations was academic achievement, measured as mean achievement score on standardized achievement tests.     

A cognitive-behavioral intervention program for students with special reading disabilities

Interaction among cognitive, meta-cognitive, and emotional factors seems to play a determining part in achievement behavior and especially in scholastic performance. In this study some preliminary results are presented of the implementation of a multidimensional cognitive-behavioral psychoeducational program especially designed for students with reading disabilities in which parents and teachers also take part. The aim of the program was to provide students with appropriate emotional and cognitive skills with which to address their learning problems. First results on the efficacy of the implemented program to 20 primary school boys and girls with special reading disabilities encourage research on management of learning problems with focus on cognitive and emotional aspects in which parents and teachers contribute. Research including a control group is necessary.     

Training Vocational Rehabilitation Counselors in Group Dynamics: A Psychoeducational Model

Vocational rehabilitation (VR) counselors often head interdisciplinary teams composed of various medical, educational, and allied health care professionals. Issues stemming from team dynamics can impede the delivery of services to eligible clients with disabilities. A psychoeducational program for training VR counselors in group dynamics is described, and the reactions of participants are discussed     

An analysis of the conceptual framework underlying definitions of learning disabilities

Various theoretical perspectives have contributed to the different types of definitions of learning disabilities (LD) that have been developed since the category was first established. To date, there has been little consensus on the definition of learning disabilities. In the present study, three kinds of definitions, ability-achievement discrepancy, low achievement, and scatter, were examined to determine the extent to which there was common variance. The subject were 48 school-identified LD children and 96 non-LD children. Both samples had previously been administered a battery of psychoeducational tests. These data were used to classify each child as LD or non-LD according to each of 14 operational definitions. A factor analysis resulted in two distinct groupings of LD students; low achievement accounted for over four times as much variance as ability-achievement discrepancy. Scatter did not contribute independently to classification. The implications for LD-identification practices are discussed.     

Field dependence versus field independence of students with and without learning disabilities

The Group Embedded Figures Test of Oltman, Raskin, and Witkin was administered to 60 high school students (30 with learning disabilities and 30 without learning disabilities) to measure their cognitive styles of field dependence versus field independence. The analysis showed that the students with learning disabilities scored as more field dependent than those without learning disabilities.     

Consultative services in the schools: A model

A model Child Evaluation Center was established in a regular public school to demonstrate alternative methods for providing psychoeducational services. In addition to its service/demonstration function, the center functioned as a psychoeducational field training clinic for the training of school psychologists. The center was successful in encouraging teachers to utilize consultative services, and, in the process, reducing the number of referrals for formal psychological evaluation.     

成人学习不良的认知特点与教育干预

介绍了成人学习不良者的一般特点,并深入分析了成人学习不良的注意、记忆、思维、智力等方面的认知特征,探讨了依据认知特征对成人学习不良者进行教育干预的模式和原则。     

关于学生自我妨碍等策略及相关研究的综述

本文介绍了在学校情境中学生采用的自我保护的两个策略,即自我妨碍与防御性悲观策略的研究。主要涉及到关于自我保护模型的纵向研究、自我妨碍和成就目标的延伸性研究、学业不良者自我妨碍研究,并结合研究的结果相应提出了在教育方面的建议。     

美国成人学习不良研究及其启示

随着儿童、青少年学习不良研究的逐步深入,近年来,成人学习不良成为美国等西方国家教育心理学研究新的热点。在回顾了成人学习不良概念的提出与确立后,介绍了美国学术界对成人学习不良的筛查和界定标准,并对该领域主要成果从学业发展、阅读困难、元认知和干预研究四个方面进行了概括和分析,指出成人学习不良界定标准的不统一、长期追踪研究的缺乏以及针对成人学习不良心理咨询体系的滞后等已成为当前该领域急待解决的问题。我国应在吸取国外研究成果和经验的基础上,尽快制定出符合自身国情的筛查和诊断标准,掌握学习不良在我国成人群体当中的发生率和分布状况,同时加强相关基础研究和追踪研究,争取在较短时间内建立起我国成人学习不良研究的体系。     

互联网在学习不良干预中的作用

学习不良一直是心理学和教育学研究的热点,由于计算机和互联网的迅猛发展及其被引入教学后所产生的积极效果,使得研究者开始关注计算机和互联网对学习不良学生的影响。该文介绍了计算机和互联网在学习不良干预中的作用,包括利用互联网激发学习不良学生的学习动机、提高他们的阅读和写作能力、加强教学管理以及帮助他们明确职业方向。该文还指出了此领域现有研究的局限及未来研究的取向。     

成人学习不良社会适应研究

近几年,学术界对成人学习不良社会适应性的研究不断增多。在总结了该领域研究的总体思路后,文章从受教育程度与社会适应、社会交往与人际关系、情绪状态与压力以及环境因素四个方面对该领域主要研究成果进行了分析和概括。最后,针对提高成人学习不良社会适应能力的干预和心理咨询进行了介绍。     

Cognitive and neuropsychological outcomes: more than IQ scores

Improved survival in preterm infants has broadened interest in cognitive and neuropsychological outcomes. The incidence of major disabilities (moderate/severe mental retardation, neurosensory disorders, epilepsy, cerebral palsy) has remained consistent, but high prevalence/low severity dysfunctions (learning disabilities, ADHD, borderline mental retardation, specific neuropsychological deficits, behavioral disorders) have increased. The follow-up literature contains methodologic problems that make generalizations regarding outcome difficult, and these are discussed. Although mean IQs of former VLBW infants generally are in the low average range and are 3-9 points below normal birth weight peers, these scores mask subtle deficits in: visual-motor and visual-perceptual abilities, complex language functions, academics (reading, mathematics, spelling and writing), and attentional skills. There is an increased incidence of non-verbal learning disabilities, need for special educational assistance, and behavioral disorders in children born prematurely. Males have more problems, and there is a trend for worsening outcome over time, due to emergence of more subtle deficits in response to increased performance demands. In addition to IQ and achievement testing in follow-up, there should be evaluation of executive functions and attention, language, sensorimotor functions, visuospatial processes, memory and learning, and behavioral adjustment.     

Can counselling/psychotherapy be helpful in reducing barriers to learning for the person with specific learning difficulties?

This paper explores the relative helpfulness of counselling/psychotherapy to individuals experiencing specific learning difficulties, as a means of reducing barriers to learning by allowing the individual to return to learning from experience. Highlighting earlier studies which indicate the positive impact of psychological therapy on educational attainment and inhibiting factors such as stress, this research investigates the experience of counselling from the perspective of the person with specific learning disabilities. Using Empirical Phenomenological Research, the study explores their understandings of the circumstances and factors by which therapy is found to be helpful or unhelpful, seeking to contribute to debate on whether psychological interventions that are ‘specialist’ in orientation are potentially more helpful than ‘generalist’ therapeutic approaches. The findings point both to the potential value of psychological therapies for persons with special educational needs as a complement to other interventions and also to the importance of considering the experiences of the client in addition to diagnostic assessments.     

PSYCHOEDUCATIONAL SERVICES FOR CHILDREN AND YOUTH IN THE ORIENT: CURRENT STATUS,PROBLEMS, AND SOME REMEDIES*

Utilizing information obtained through an international survey and existing literature, patterns in the practices, research, and preparation of professionals who deliver psychoeducational services to children and youth in six Oriental countries (i.e., China, Hong Kong ¹, Japan, the Philippines, Taiwan, and Thailand) are described. Services are provided by many professional groups. While few formal programs exist for the preparation of psychologists to work in schools, those providing such services have at least a bachelor's degree. Services commonly provided include assessment, vocational and educational guidance, counseling, parent education, and teaching. School psychological services generally are not governed by legislation or professional standards. Research tends to be applied and directed toward the construction and translations of tests and toward the needs of the mentally retarded, learning disabled, and behaviorally disordered. Ten major problems creating barriers for the delivery of psychoeducational services are identified. Three suggestions to help resolve these problems are offered.     

Relationship of psychoeducational diagnosis to educational placement

This study was designed to investigate the relationship between diagnostic classifications and educational placement recommendations utilized by educational psychologists in the evaluation of psychoeducational reports completed on a select group of boys referred to a Child Psychiatric Outpatient Department. In the present study, 45 reports were evaluated for clinical consensus in five input areas: Developmental History, School History, Cognitive Functioning, Sensorimotor-Perceptual Functioning, and Academic Achievement. In addition, one of four educational recommendations was identified for each subject: No Educational Placement Intervention Necessary, Special Tutoring or Remediation, Special Class Placement, and Special School Placement. There was interrater agreement at a greater than chance level (p≤.01) for three of the input areas, and agreement at a greater than chance level (p≤.05) for one of the input areas. Using the maximum rating given by the evaluators on each variable, subjects were classified into six discrete clusters based on their clinical characteristics. A chi square test determined that there was no significant association (p >.05) between cluster membership and specific educational placement recommendations. However, more global relationships between degree of clinical impairment and the need for some educational placement were found.     

Toward Objective Diagnosis of Learning Disabilities

Considerable confusion and subjectivity has plagued the diagnosis of learning disabilities since the field was first established. Though clinical judgement is necessary for appropriate diagnosis and provision of services to learning disabled children, such judgement must be steeped in evidence and given clear empirical guidance. Application of the severe discrepancy criterion dictated in Federal regulations offers an excellent beginning point in objectifying learning disability diagnosis.