Helping Police Officers to Cope with Stress: A Cognitive—Behavioral Approach

Police Academy trainees participated in a stress management program which focused on developing skills for coping with anxiety and anger. Stress management training took place in six 2-hour sessions and included instruction and practice in the self-monitoring of reactions to stressful situations, muscular relaxation, and the development of adaptive self-statements. Self-report measures of anxiety and anger were obtained before and after the stress management program. In addition, self and observer ratings of trainees' performance in stressful simulated police activities were utilized as posttreatment dependent measures. In comparison to a control group of trainees, the performance of the treatment group was rated, by academy personnel, as superior in several of the simulated police activities. The results of the present study suggest that stress management with law enforcement officers may be most effective when the program focuses on the specific situations which are likely to be encountered by trainees. Limitations of the present program are examined and suggestions for future efforts with law enforcement personnel are discussed.     

To Flourish or Languish,that is the question: Exploring the mental health profiles of Danish elite athletes

ObjectivesThe purpose of this study was (a) to investigate mental well-being and the prevalence of anxiety and depressive symptoms in Danish male and female elite athletes, (b) to identify latent profiles in athletes based on their mental health and ill health, and (c) to examine whether the different profiles vary in selected protective and risk factors concerning mental health.MethodsA total of 612 Danish athletes (M = 18.99, SD = 4.29) from 18 different sports completed an online version of the Holistic Athlete Mental Health Survey that assessed well-being, depression, and anxiety together with potential risk and protective factors (e.g., injuries, stress, sleep, social support, sport environment).ResultsOverall, 13.9% of athletes reported moderate or severe anxiety symptoms while 21.1% reported moderate or severe depressive symptoms. Female athletes had a significantly higher prevalence of anxiety and depressive symptoms and lower mental well-being scores than male athletes. Through a latent profile analysis, three distinctive mental health profiles (flourishing, moderate mental health, languishing) were discovered. MANOVA following Kruskal-Wallis tests revealed substantial differences between these profiles regarding their perception of social support, sport environment, and stressors from different life domains.Conclusions: Danish elite athletes display similar levels of anxiety and depressive symptoms as the Danish general population. Flourishing athletes report lower stress levels, receive higher support from the private and sport domain, and perceive their sport environment as more supportive than athletes who are languishing. A tailored approach is proposed to support athletes' mental health.     

Mental Health Stereotypes About Gay Men

Three studies were conducted to examine the mental health stereotypes about gay men among college student and therapist trainee samples. Results from Study 1 indicated that (a) college students and therapist trainees endorsed a stereotype of the mental health of gay men that was similar in terms of its content and strength, and (b) the stereotype was consistent with five DSM-IV-TR disorder categories: mood, anxiety, sexual and gender identity, eating, and personality disorders. In Study 2 and 3 we investigated whether homophobia or a tendency to report cultural beliefs could account for the lack of difference between college students and therapist trainees. Results did not support either explanation.     

Adult attachment styles and psychological disease: examining the mediating role of personality traits

The aim of the present study was to examine differences in anxiety and depression related to differences in attachment models of the self and of others and whether personality traits mediate this relationship. The authors assessed attachment styles, anxiety, depression, and personality traits among 274 adult volunteers. Participants were classified into 4 attachment groups (secure, preoccupied, fearful, and dismissing-avoidant) according to K. Bartholomew's (1990) model. The present authors found significant differences among attachment groups on anxiety and depressive symptoms with attachment styles involving a negative self-model showing higher scores than attachment styles characterized by a positive self-model. The authors also found that differences between attachment styles in anxiety and depression remained significant when personality factors related to attachment prototypes were entered as covariates. Results indicate that secure attachment in adults was associated with better mental health, while insecure attachment styles characterized by negative thinking about the self were associated with higher depression and anxiety scores. Our findings seem to evidence that attachment and personality are only partly overlapping and that attachment cannot be considered as redundant with personality in the explanation of psychological disease.     

Workers' compensation for law enforcement related post traumatic stress disorder

The questions of how Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) manifests itself among police officers and their eligibility to receive workers' compensation for PTSD are explored. The nature of the police officer's occupation, the prevalence of stress-related disorders among police personnel, and the relationship of the police personality to the dynamics of the way stress is manifested are considered. The extent to which workers' compensation statutes in various states cover mental injuries is also examined, and the variables that may affect the outcome of an officer's receiving compensation for PTSD are discussed. Finally, implications for mental health professionals who testify as expert witnesses in cases dealing with police stress, as well as those who work in the assessment and treatment ofpolice personnel, are explored.     

Social relationships, personality, and anxiety during a major stressful event

Although it is commonly believed that social relationships buffer the effects of stress on mental health, these apparent buffering effects may be spurious reflections of personality or prior mental health. This possibility was investigated in a prospective study of a medical school entrance examination. Five weeks before the examination, Ss (N = 56) rated their personality (extraversion and neuroticism) and social relationships (number of social contacts and perceived support). They then rated their anxiety for 35 days surrounding the examination. Controlling for personality and prior anxiety, social contacts buffered against increases in anxiety, whereas perceived support did not. Further analyses revealed that discretionary social contacts were beneficial whereas obligatory contacts were not.     

A latent profile analysis of the Five Factor Model of personality: Modeling trait interactions

Interactions among the dimensions of the Five Factor Model (FFM) have not typically been evaluated in mental health research, with the extant literature focusing on bivariate relationships with psychological constructs of interest. This study used latent profile analysis to mimic higher-order interactions to identify homogenous personality profiles using the FFM, and also examined relationships between resultant profiles and affect, self-esteem, depression, anxiety, and coping efficacy. Participants (N = 371) completed self-report and daily diary questionnaires. A 3-profile solution provided the best fit to the data; the profiles were characterized as well-adjusted, reserved, and excitable. The well-adjusted group reported better psychological functioning in validation analyses. The reserved and excitable groups differed on anxiety, with the excitable group reporting generally higher anxiety than the reserved group. Latent profile analysis may be a parsimonious way to model personality heterogeneity.     

军校医学生心理应激影响因素的通径分析

目的探讨军校医学生心理应激的影响因素及其相互作用方式。方法选用军校医学生日常困扰评定量表、应付方式问卷、特质焦虑问卷、自尊量表和流调中心用抑郁量表对935名军校医学生进行测试，采用SPSS10．0对数据进行统计分析。结果日常困扰主要通过间接作用影响军校医学生的心理应激；自尊和特质焦虑对心理应激具有直接作用和间接作用。应付方式是日常困扰、个性特点影响心理应激的中间环节。结论维护军校医学生的身心健康，可以把优化其个性结构，加强应对训练作为一个切入点。     

Cognitive-Behavioral Processes Based on Using the ABC Analysis by Trainees’ for Their Personal Development

As cognitive-behavior therapy (CBT) has proven to be an evidence-based intervention for many mental health problems, the requirement for training programs has increased. Although there is promising data on the skills outcomes of such programs, trainees’ affective/behavioral changes mechanisms and in their faulty thinking patterns during the personal development of such training are unknown. The aim of this study is to investigate which are the most common irrational/dysfunctional beliefs of trainees during a cognitive-behavioral intervention training and their maladaptive consequences, as well as the methods of restructuring that they prefer to change these beliefs into rational/functional ones and achieve more adaptive consequences. 94 participants in a cognitive-behavioral interventions training program filled out 340 ABC, forms related to negative events at work and in personal life, as part of the personal development component in the training program. The obtained qualitative data was coded by three trained ratters in accordance to the current cognitive model of CBT. Contingencies analysis showed that demandingness, awfulizing and global evaluation (GE) are most frequently associated with anxiety, while low frustration tolerance is associated with anger. Comfort, affiliation, achievement themes were most frequently associated with anxiety, while fairness was most frequently associated with anger. Pragmatic cognitive restructuring was the most frequently used by trainees. We found evidence that confirmed many of the theoretical predictions form the cognitive model of CBT in respect to the associations between irrational/dysfunctional cognitions and dysfunctional emotions as well as some particularities for this specific population.     

A latent profile analysis of the Five Factor Model of personality: Modeling trait interactions

Interactions among the dimensions of the Five Factor Model (FFM) have not typically been evaluated in mental health research, with the extant literature focusing on bivariate relationships with psychological constructs of interest. This study used latent profile analysis to mimic higher-order interactions to identify homogenous personality profiles using the FFM, and also examined relationships between resultant profiles and affect, self-esteem, depression, anxiety, and coping efficacy. Participants (N = 371) completed self-report and daily diary questionnaires. A 3-profile solution provided the best fit to the data; the profiles were characterized as well-adjusted, reserved, and excitable. The well-adjusted group reported better psychological functioning in validation analyses. The reserved and excitable groups differed on anxiety, with the excitable group reporting generally higher anxiety than the reserved group. Latent profile analysis may be a parsimonious way to model personality heterogeneity.     

Stress Management for Police Special Forces

This article reports on the implementation of a stress management program for French police Special Forces units. A stressor analysis was conducted to identify stress sources and understand how mental skills could help the Special Forces to cope and function more effectively. An initial difficulty had to be overcome to allow this population to talk about stress and emotions without being afraid of losing their "virility." The program was then organized around three levels (organizational, group, and individual) and around three periods of time (an initial four-day meeting, a two-day follow-up meeting one month later, and a final one-day meeting held after six months). One hundred and fifty male police officers were involved in the program. Results revealed that the psychological training was very well received and led the police management to consider factors and manifestations of stress in a more extensive way. Stress management training soon will be initiated for all the police forces working on the street. Moreover, other groups asked for the training to be adapted to their specific work characteristics, such as the intelligence service and bodyguard detachments.     

“I'm a police officer not a social worker or mental health nurse”: Online discourses of exclusion and resistance regarding mental health‐related police work

Despite estimates suggesting that around 15% of UK police incidents involve people with a mental health concern, officers receive very little mental health training. The police have faced high‐profile criticisms over their handling of mental health‐related incidents, whereas the underfunding and fragmentation of UK mental health services has led to concerns that police officers are being forced to undertake a primary role in mental health care. At a time of austerity and widespread cuts to public services, it is important to explore how particular groups work to justify the parameters of their professional duties. This article therefore explores the discourses surrounding mental health problems on an online police discussion forum, highlighting two distinct ways in which mental health‐related work is represented as being incompatible with policing. First, mental health problems are delegitimised and conflated with “scrounging,” positioning individuals as undeserving of police time; second, mental health problems are reified and associated with violence and extreme behaviour, justifying the use of force by police officers and deflecting responsibility onto mental health services. Findings are consistent with previous research suggesting that mental health work is not perceived to be a valid part of the police role.     

Stresses reported by UK trainee counselling psychologists

This study examined stressors and psychological distress in 109 UK counselling psychology trainees. The research focus was two-fold. What is the profile of stressors that counselling psychology trainees report about the components of training? What relationship is there between this profile, and other characteristics of trainees, including their level of current psychological distress? Data from a stress survey and from the General Health Questionnaire were examined. High stress scores were found on three aspects of the stress survey (‘academic’, ‘placements’, ‘personal and professional development’), but not–surprisingly–on the aspect, ‘lack of support systems’. Significant stress differences were reported for gender and age of participants, and highly significant positive relationships were found between General Health Questionnaire and stress scores. Overall, the results suggest actions to be taken. Further research is needed to clarify unavoidable and avoidable stressors in training, and the reduction of trainees’ experience of training stress to the necessary minimum needs to be adopted as an active target by programmes.     

Stress, relaxation states, and creativity.

114 participants in four groups practiced 25 minutes of progressive muscle relaxation, yoga stretching, imagery, or a control task. Before and after training, participants took state versions of the Smith Quick Stress Test (which measures Somatic Stress, Negative Affect, and Worry) and the Smith R-State Inventory (which measures relaxation-related states Disengagement, Physical Relaxation, Mental Relaxation, Strength and Awareness, Joy, Love and Thankfulness, and Prayerfulness). After training, all took both the Verbal and Figural forms of the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking. At posttest, groups' scores did not differ on Creativity; however, when compared with yoga stretching, imagery trainees had lower posttest scores on Negative Affect. Both yoga stretching and imagery trainees displayed higher scores on self-reported Physical Relaxation than did controls. Progressive muscle relaxation trainees had lower scores on Somatic Stress than controls. Paradoxically, for all relaxation trainees, Disengagement (feeling "distant, far away, indifferent") correlated positively with both Negative Affect and Physical Relaxation, suggesting that disengagement in relaxation may not lead to relaxation-induced anxiety but may help one cope with such anxiety.     

Clinical Judgment in Case Conceptualization and Treatment Planning Across Mental Health Disciplines

This study compared clinical judgment on case conceptualization and treatment planning (TP) tasks among psychologists, mental health counselors, and social workers using Clinical Treatment Planning Simulations depicting anxiety and affective disorders. Orientation and work setting did not significantly influence judgment; experience exerted a “modest” curvilinear effect Mental health counselors scored higher than social workers and similar to psychologists on both tasks. The best predictors of TP scores for the anxiety disorder were interventions addressing stress management and family dynamics; strong predictors for the affective disorder included focus on family dynamics and the therapeutic relationship. Implications of findings for training are discussed.     

Trainee Perceptions of Drill Sergeant Qualities During Basic Combat Training

Basic combat training plays an important role in military service with approximately 72,000 soldiers participating in the United States annually. Although Drill Sergeant qualities have been widely portrayed in popular media, there is very little empirical research that documents the characteristics of Drill Sergeants and the impact these characteristics may have on trainees. In this study we evaluated a measure of perceived Drill Sergeant qualities and the degree to which these qualities related to mental health symptoms and job-related outcomes of trainees. Three types of perceived Drill Sergeant qualities were found from factor analyses: motivation, respect, and toughness. Using latent growth curve analyses, higher initial scores on motivation and respect, but not toughness, were associated with greater decreases in mental health symptoms over time. Further, changes in perceived Drill Sergeant qualities related to changes in depressive symptoms, unit cohesion, and citizen behaviors assessed over the course of basic combat training.     

Editorial

This study examined the psychometric properties of the Outcome Questionnaire-30.2 (OQ-30.2; designed to measure patient progress throughout mental health treatment) in a sample of United States Air Force active duty basic military trainees who were evaluated for mental health concerns during the course of basic training. Findings indicate that the OQ-30.2 was internally consistent and Total scores decreased with more contact with mental health professionals. Previously reported 1- and 3-factor structures were not replicated; rather, results suggested the use of a broad 27-item general psychological distress subscale and a separate subscale of 3 critical items assessing substance use concerns. Present findings support the utility of the OQ-30.2 as a tool for repeated monitoring of patient progress in military mental health settings. Recommendations for future directions in the development of alternate calculations of the clinical cut score and reliable change index are discussed.     

Personality and relaxation therapy: changes among clinical and normal subjects

There are increasing numbers of self-referral stress-management programs, a few of which use group-relaxation techniques, but few data are available on the personalities of the symptomatic and asymptomatic clients who attend or on any changes in personality after the program. Scores on the Eysenck Personality Inventory, Multiple Health Locus of Control, and State-Trait Anxiety Inventory as well as demographic information were obtained from 255 adults who attended a 10-session, university-based, group-relaxation program. The symptomatic clients reported significantly less anxiety, less neuroticism, were more extraverted and ascribed less of their behavior to chance at a 1 month post-treatment follow-up than at intake. The small group of asymptomatic clients also reported less anxiety and neuroticism at the follow-up. There were no sex differences on the Eysenck inventory or the anxiety scales but there were for the Multiple Health internal and control scales. It was concluded that group relaxation appeared to improve mental health scores effectively for both stressed and nonstressed adults and that age was significantly related to some personality scores.     

Cooperation Patterns of Israeli Mental Health Practitioners

Abstract

The cooperation patterns of Israeli mental health practitioners were examined. Psychiatrists, psychologists, and psychiatric social workers were asked to fill out a questionnaire for a study investigating the influence of therapists' authoritarianism and ideology on their therapeutic attitudes. The cooperation level in mental health clinics was higher than that in psychiatric hospitals, student counseling centers, and psychiatric departments of general hospitals. In all three professions, the trainees were more cooperative than the experts. The cooperation level of the psychiatrists was the lowest, and women were generally more cooperative than men, although there was a significant Gender × Profession interaction. The fact that the psychologists and social workers were more cooperative may be attributed to their training, which places more emphasis on the therapist's personality and attitudes. The high cooperation level in the mental health clinics may be explained by the almost exclusive focus on psychotherapy, which encourages introspection.