The Impact of Children's Language Ability on Parent Cognitions and Harsh Discipline Practices

This study examined associations between children's language ability and maternal cognitions about the intentionality and aversiveness of child behaviour, and mothers' reported harsh discipline responses to child misbehaviour. We tested associations with each type of cognition separately as well as in a single model to explore their unique associations. Participants included 69 mothers and their 18‐ to 37‐month‐old children. Mothers completed the Parenting Scale and were asked to rate the aversiveness and intentionality cognitions in response to eight common toddler problem behaviours. The Preschool Language Scale was administered to the children by an objective evaluator. A path analysis demonstrated that children's language ability was associated with maternal intentionality cognitions about their children's behaviour, which, in turn, was associated with mothers' harsh discipline. These findings highlight the importance of examining developmental markers of harsh parenting. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Mothering under political violence: Post-traumatic symptoms,observed maternal parenting practices and child externalising behaviour

Using the family stress model as our conceptual framework, we explored whether observed maternal parenting practices (positive and coercive) account for the associations between mothers' post-traumatic stress symptoms and children's externalising behaviours. Mothers' self-reported post-traumatic stress symptoms, observed maternal practices, and reports of children's externalising behaviour were collected from 123 Israeli mothers and their children, who were exposed to ongoing rocket attacks in southern Israel. A structural equation model revealed that mothers' post-traumatic stress symptoms were linked with greater maternal coercive parenting practices, which in turn were associated with more externalising behaviours in children. The study highlights the crucial role of maternal distress and mothers' parenting skills in the development of externalising behaviours in children exposed to chronic political violence. These results suggest that prevention interventions designed to promote parenting skills for mothers exposed to political violence may be beneficial for children's healthy development.     

Parenting empathy: Associations with dimensions of parent and child psychopathology

Background. Parenting empathy, the understanding by parents, and the sharing in their child's perspective, represents an important element of competent parenting. The present study tested the hypotheses that maternal empathy might be lower where mothers or their children display symptoms of psychopathology. Method. Mothers (N = 268) of school‐aged children completed questionnaires on child‐directed empathy and egoistic personal distress and their own and their child's symptoms of psychopathology across a number of broadly defined domains. Results. Child conduct problems were associated with decreased child‐directed empathy and increased maternal egoistic distress. Maternal aggressive characteristics and maternal ADHD symptoms were each associated with increased egoistic personal distress. Conclusion. The findings indicate that symptoms of psychopathology in children and adults are associated with deficits in empathy and increased maternal egoistic personal distress. The implications of the findings for responsive parenting and child social behaviour are discussed.     

抚养困难与教养行为的关系及其调节因素

本研究考察了567名2-5岁幼儿母亲的抚养困难与教养行为的关系,并进一步探讨了在高抚养困难情景下母亲教养行为的可能调节因素.结果发现(1)幼儿母亲的抚养困难感受总分与其教养行为的各个侧面均有非常显著的相关,母亲抚养困难程度越高,则其敏感性、参与性、积极情感及对儿童发展的指导性均较低,而其对儿童的消极情感较多;(2)回归分析表明,来自儿童侧面的"积极强化缺乏"、"多动/注意分散"、"不良心境"与"过度要求"以及来自母亲侧面的"缺乏依恋"、"缺乏能力感"等方面的抚养困难是预测母亲教养行为的重要因素;(3)在母亲抚养困难较高的情况下,夫妻双方的受教育水平分别对母亲教养行为的一些侧面具有调节作用.     

Socioeconomic status and executive function in early childhood: Exploring proximal mechanisms

Although there is substantial evidence that socioeconomic status (SES) predicts children's executive function (EF), the mechanisms underlying this association are poorly understood. This study tested the utility of two theories proposed to link SES to children's EF: the family stress model and the family investment model. Data came from the Midwestern Infant Development Study (N = 151). To measure SES, parental education and income were assessed during pregnancy, and income was also assessed when children were 6 and 36 months old. Children's EF, operationalized as working memory/inhibitory control (WMIC) and self‐control, was assessed at 36 months of age, along with potential mediators including maternal psychological distress, harsh parenting, and cognitive stimulation. Using structural equation modeling, we tested simultaneous pathways from SES to EF: (a) via maternal psychological distress to harsh parenting (family stress model) and (b) via cognitive stimulation (family investment model). Of the SES measures, lower education predicted poorer WMIC directly and indirectly via greater maternal psychological distress. Lower education also predicted poorer self‐control via greater maternal psychological distress. This effect was partially suppressed by an indirect path from lower education to better self‐control via greater psychological distress and increased harsh parenting. Cognitive stimulation did not act as a mediator. Income was not directly or indirectly associated with EF. These findings provide partial support for the family stress model and suggest that family functioning is an important proximal mechanism for children's EF development. This study also highlights the importance of considering SES as a multidimensional construct.     

Economic Disadvantage and Young Children’s Emotional and Behavioral Problems: Mechanisms of Risk

This study aimed to establish potential mechanisms through which economic disadvantage contributes to the development of young children’s internalizing and externalizing problems. Prospective data from fetal life to age 3 years were collected in a total of 2,169 families participating in the Generation R Study. The observed physical home environment, the provision of learning materials in the home, maternal depressive symptoms, parenting stress, and harsh disciplining practices were all analyzed as potential mediators of the association between economic disadvantage and children’s internalizing and externalizing problem scores. Findings from structural equation modeling showed that for both internalizing and externalizing problems, the mechanisms underlying the effect of economic disadvantage included maternal depressive symptoms, along with parenting stress and harsh disciplining. For internalizing but not for externalizing problem scores, the lack of provision of learning materials in the home was an additional mechanism explaining the effect of economic disadvantage. The current results suggest that interventions that focus solely on raising income levels may not adequately address problems in the family processes that emerge as a result of economic disadvantage. Policies to improve the mental health of mothers with young children but also their home environments are needed to change the economic gradient in child behavior.     

Inconsistent Discipline as a Mediator Between Maternal Distress and Aggression in Boys

The current study examines inconsistent discipline as a mediator in the association between maternal distress and child aggression and attention problems. Participants were 215 boys, ranging in age from 9 to 12 years, and their mothers. Mothers provided self-report data on socioeconomic status (SES), parenting stress, maternal distress (depression and anxiety/somatization), and use of parenting practices. They also rated their sons' levels of aggression and attention problems. Of five parenting practices measured, inconsistent discipline was most clearly related to the maternal and child variables of interest. Regression analyses indicated that inconsistent discipline partially mediated the relation between maternal distress and child aggression, when controlling for SES and stress, whereas the mediating role of inconsistent discipline in the association between maternal distress and attention problems was not supported. The different pattern for attention problems, which also includes nondisruptive behaviors, suggests that this mediation may be specific to certain types of child behavior. Given that aggressive behaviors in childhood often lead to more serious delinquency in adolescence, these findings are important for informing prevention and intervention efforts. The need for future research to examine other mediators also is discussed.     

Evaluating a home‐based dyadic intervention: Changes in postpartum depression,maternal perceptions,and mother–infant interactions

Psychotherapeutic treatments that focus on improving the relational processes between mothers with postpartum depression (PPD) and their infants, as well as the mother's individual therapeutic needs, have a great potential to positively impact the mother, her infant, and their relationship (K.J. Nylen, T.E. Moran, C.L. Franklin, & M. O'Hara, 2006 ). Utilizing pilot data from an evaluation of a home‐based dyadic therapy for mothers with PPD and their infants, this article reports on a recent academic–community partnership study. The effectiveness of the intervention was examined, specifically regarding changes in mother's mood, parenting experience, and relationship with her infant. In addition, associations were examined among maternal self‐report variables measuring change from pre‐ to posttreatment in PPD, psychological distress, and maternal perceptions of parenting and those variables measuring change in observer ratings of maternal–infant interactions. Results showed improvements in mothers' depression, distress, and perceptions of parenting as well as many ratings of mothers' interactions with their infants. However, only improvements in maternal perceptions of parenting, such as maternal self‐esteem and parenting stress, were associated with better mother–‐infant interactions. Importance of this research for the field of infant mental health as well as clinical implications are discussed.     

儿童早期情绪性对学步期父母养育方式的影响

运用追踪设计和分层回归分析, 探究了281名儿童6个月和14个月时的受限后沮丧、恐惧和微笑大笑如何影响24个月时父母养育方式, 以及这种影响是否随儿童年龄增长而变化。研究结果显示:(1)6个月时, 仅受限后沮丧能正向预测24个月时母亲严厉的养育方式, 14个月时受限后沮丧仍能正向预测母亲的严厉, 恐惧也能正向预测母亲的保护担忧, 而微笑大笑能正向预测母亲的接受, 负向预测母亲的严厉和保护担忧;(2)6个月时, 儿童的受限后沮丧能正向预测24个月时父亲的严厉和保护担忧, 14个月儿童的受限后沮丧仍能正向预测24个月时父亲的严厉。     

Bidirectional influences between maternal parenting and children's peer problems: a longitudinal monozygotic twin difference study

This twin study examined the bidirectional relationship between maternal parenting behaviors and children's peer problems that were not confounded by genetic and family environmental factors. Mothers of 259 monozygotic twin pairs reported parenting behaviors and peer problems when twins were 42 and 48 months. Path analyses on monozygotic twin difference scores revealed that authoritative parenting (the presence of consistent discipline and lack of harsh parenting) and peer problems simultaneously influenced each other. Authoritative parenting reduced peer problems, and peer problems increased authoritative parenting. Neither consistent discipline nor harsh parenting alone was associated with peer problems. These results suggest that maternal authoritative parenting works protectively in regard to children's peer problems, and peer problems can evoke such effective parenting.     

Emotional,cognitive, and social functioning in children and early adolescents living in post-armed conflict: Testing mediating mechanisms

This study examined whether, and to which extent, the associations between conflict intensity and children's and early adolescents' functioning problems were mediated through parental harsh discipline in a post-armed conflict setting. Data from 9623 Iraqi mothers and their children who participated in UNICEF MICS showed that the associations between conflict intensity, parental discipline and child functioning were similar for children and early adolescents. Higher conflict intensity was indirectly associated with increased anxiety and depression, greater learning and cognitive difficulties, and greater social and behavioural problems through parental harsh discipline. The proportion mediated effect sizes emphasised the importance of parent-focused interventions in improving child and adolescent functioning outcomes in conflict-affected populations.     

The Moderating Role of English Proficiency in the Association Between Immigrant Chinese Mothers' Authoritative Parenting and Children's Outcomes

The authors' objective was to investigate the association between Chinese immigrant mothers' authoritative parenting and their children's socioemotional and behavioral difficulties. Participants were 136 first-generation Chinese immigrant mothers with 3–5-year-old children residing in the United States. Authoritative parenting was associated with lower socioemotional and behavioral difficulties in children as reported by preschool teachers. Further moderation analyses revealed that immigrant mothers' English proficiency moderated the association between authoritative parenting and children's difficulties. Specifically, authoritative parenting was significantly associated with fewer total difficulties only for children with mothers who reported higher English proficiency.     

Mothers’ Perceptions of Young Children,Parenting, and Young Children's Behavior Problems

Historically, research demonstrates that mothers’ attitudes and characteristics of their parenting are intertwined. More recently, mothers’ perceptions of their children are becoming a new focus of interest. To further understand the relationships among mothers’ perceptions of their young children, their parenting behaviors, and their ratings of their young children's behavior problems, this study examines the ratings of a diverse group of mothers who have young children. Correlational results of this study demonstrate that these variables are related in the anticipated directions. Further, results of regression analyses suggest that mothers’ positive and negative perceptions of their young children and their use of limit setting are important in predicting children's behavior problems. These findings suggest that interventions focusing on changing mothers’ perceptions of their young children as well as their parenting behaviors may be related to decreases in young children's behavior problems.     

UNDERSTANDING PARENTING STRESS AND CHILDREN'S BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS AMONG HOMELESS,SUBSTANCE‐ABUSING MOTHERS

This article tested a model of parenting stress as a mediator between maternal depressive symptoms, emotion regulation, and child behavior problems using a sample of homeless, substance‐abusing mothers. Participants were 119 homeless mothers (ages 18–24 years) and their young children (ages 0–6 years). Mothers responded to questions about their depressive symptoms, emotion regulation, parenting stress, and child behavior problems. A path analysis showed that maternal depressive symptoms were positively associated with child behavior problems through increased parenting stress whereas maternal cognitive reappraisal was negatively associated with child behavior problems through decreased parenting stress. Moreover, maternal expressive suppression was negatively related to child externalizing problems. Findings support the parenting stress theory and highlight maternal parenting stress as a mechanism associated with homeless children's mental health risk. This study has significant implications for understanding the parenting processes underlying child's resilience in the context of homelessness and maternal substance use.     

When two are a family: looking backward and looking forward in a group intervention with single‐by‐choice mothers

Objective: We describe a preventive short‐term group intervention with nine single‐by‐choice (SBC) mothers to provide maximal support for parental functioning and to minimize possible emotional and/or developmental difficulties in their children. Method: Dynamically oriented group work (fifteen one‐and‐a‐half‐hour sessions) focused on: elaboration of painful experiences in the peri‐natal period; reducing stress, tension and guilt; helping mothers with problematic aspects of parenting through work on parental self‐image and perceptions of the child and the dyadic interaction; and strengthening their acceptance of the chosen family model. Results: Therapeutic gains described by mothers and facilitators include: reduced tension, anxiety and guilt; improved integration of the mother's parental self‐image and perception of the child; reduced ambivalence in dyadic relationships; strengthening the mother's fantasized triadic relationships; better acceptance of chosen family pattern; mothers' willingness to tell children their birth story. Conclusion: Dynamically oriented preventive group intervention with SBC mothers can identify potential psychological risk factors and help mothers with sensitive aspects of parenting.     

An Actor–Partner Interdependence Analysis of Associations between Affect and Parenting Behavior among Couples

Prior studies evaluating associations between parental affect and parenting behavior have typically focused on either mothers or fathers despite evidence suggesting that affect and parenting behavior may be interdependent among couples. This study addressed this gap in the literature by evaluating associations between self‐reported affect and parenting behavior using an actor–partner interdependence analysis among a sample of 53 mother‐father dyads of 3‐ to 5‐year‐old children. Results suggested that mothers' and fathers' negative affect, as well as mothers' and fathers' positive affect, were positively associated. Both mothers' and fathers' negative affect were negatively associated with fathers' positive affect. Mothers' and fathers' harsh/negative parenting behavior, and supportive/engaged parenting behavior, were positively associated. Furthermore, mothers' negative affect was positively associated with mothers' and fathers' harsh/negative parenting behavior while mothers' positive affect was negatively associated with mothers' harsh/negative behavior and positively associated with mothers' supportive/engaged behavior. Fathers' negative affect was positively associated with fathers' supportive/engaged parenting behavior, while fathers' positive affect was positively associated with mothers' and fathers' supportive/engaged behavior. Results highlight the importance of conceptualizing and measuring characteristics of both mothers and fathers, if applicable, when researching the dynamics of interpersonal relationships within families.     

Trajectories of externalizing behavior from age 2 to age 9: relations with gender, temperament, ethnicity, parenting, and rater

Trajectories of children's externalizing behavior were examined using multilevel growth curve modeling of data from the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development. According to ratings by both mothers and caregivers/teachers when children were 2, 3, 4, 7, and 9 years old, externalizing behavior declined with age. However, mothers rated children as higher in externalizing behavior than did caregivers and teachers. Higher levels of age 9 externalizing behavior were predicted by the following factors: child male gender (for caregiver/teacher reports only), infant difficult temperament (for children with harsh mothers only), harsher maternal attitude toward discipline, higher level of maternal depression (for maternal reports only), and lower level of maternal sensitivity (especially for boys). Caregivers and teachers reported higher levels of externalizing behavior in African American children than in European American children, increasingly so over time; mothers' ratings revealed the reverse. The declining slope of externalizing behavior was predicted by infant difficult temperament for mother reports only. Additional analyses suggested that the association between parenting and externalizing behavior was bidirectional.     

Confidant support and maternal distress: Predictors of parenting practices for divorced mothers

Following divorce, mothers may seek support for their parenting efforts. This study investigates confidant support from friends, family, and intimate partners, along with maternal distress, as predictors of parenting practices for divorced women. In a multimethod study of 138 mothers and their support confidants, we employed a measure of observed support that included emotional support, supportive behaviors, and likability of the support provider. These qualities were scored from dyadic problem-solving discussions of the mother's personal and parenting problems. Our main hypothesis was supported: Controlling for maternal distress and confidant negativity, observed confidant support predicted higher levels of effective parenting practices. Confidant negativity was associated with maternal distress, and we found a marginal relationship between maternal distress and parenting. Confidant negativity had an indirect association with parenting by predicting lower levels of observed support. Overall, 36% of the variance in parenting practices and 24% of the variance in observed support was explained in a multimethod structural equation model specified with minimal overlap.     

Neighborhood and Housing Disorder,Parenting, and Youth Adjustment in Low-Income Urban Families

Using two waves of data, this study examined relations among neighborhood and housing disorder, parents’ psychological distress, parenting behaviors, and subsequent youth adjustment in a low‐income, multiethnic sample of families with children aged 6–16. Results supported the hypothesized indirect relation between disorder and youth outcomes via parenting processes. Higher levels of neighborhood and housing disorder were associated with higher levels of parents’ psychological distress, which was in turn related to more frequent use of harsh and inconsistent discipline strategies and lower parental warmth. More frequent use of harsh and inconsistent discipline was associated with higher levels of youth internalizing and externalizing behaviors 3 years later. Housing disorder contributed more strongly to parents’ psychological distress than neighborhood disorder, whereas neighborhood disorder contributed more strongly to youth externalizing behaviors compared to housing disorder. Multiple‐group analyses showed that the patterns of relations were similar for younger and older children, and for girls and boys.     

Development and initial validation of the comprehensive early childhood parenting questionnaire (CECPAQ) for parents of 1–4 year-olds

Parenting is a multifaceted task and the way in which parents fulfill this task plays an important role in children’s growth and development, especially in early childhood. Conceptualization and assessment of parenting behavior is elementary for research on child and family development and would fill a gap in clinical work, as there is a lack of questionnaires simultaneously assessing multiple parenting behaviors specific for early childhood. Therefore the Comprehensive Early Childhood Parenting Questionnaire (CECPAQ) was designed; a parent report measure of commonly occurring behaviors in five domains of parenting (i.e., support, stimulation, structure, harsh discipline, and positive discipline) central to early childhood. Data were collected from 1139 mothers and 526 fathers of 1–4 year-old children. Confirmatory factor analysis confirmed a five-factor structure (composed of 54 items). The five parenting domains were found to have good internal consistency and temporal stability. Preliminary evidence of validity of the CECPAQ was demonstrated by moderate relationships with measures of parental stress and child problem behavior. It is concluded that the CECPAQ is a promising measure of self-perceived parenting behavior for parents of 1–4 year-old children.