Gender differences in self-conscious emotional experience: A meta-analysis

The self-conscious emotions (SCE) of guilt, shame, pride, and embarrassment are moral emotions, which motivate adherence to social norms and personal standards and emerge in early childhood following the development of self-awareness. Gender stereotypes of emotion maintain that women experience more guilt, shame, and embarrassment but that men experience more pride. To estimate the magnitude of gender differences in SCE experience and to determine the circumstances under which these gender differences vary, we meta-analyzed 697 effect sizes representing 236,304 individual ratings of SCE states and traits from 382 journal articles, dissertations, and unpublished data sets. Guilt (d = -0.27) and shame (d = -0.29) displayed small gender differences, whereas embarrassment (d = -0.08), authentic pride (d = -0.01), and hubristic pride (d = 0.09) showed gender similarities. Similar to previous findings of ethnic variations in gender differences in other psychological variables, gender differences in shame and guilt were significant only for White samples or samples with unspecified ethnicity. We found larger gender gaps in shame with trait (vs. state) scales, and in guilt and shame with situation- and scenario-based (vs. adjective- and statement-based) items, consistent with predictions that such scales and items tend to tap into global, nonspecific assessments of the self and thus reflect self-stereotyping and gender role assimilative effects. Gender differences in SCE about domains such as the body, sex, and food or eating tended to be larger than gender differences in SCE about other domains. These findings contribute to the literature demonstrating that blanket stereotypes about women's greater emotionality are inaccurate. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).     

Gender Differences in Spiritual Development During the College Years

Gender differences in spirituality and related traits are an assumed reality despite the lack of empirical information that directly compares women and men. I used a national and longitudinal sample of 3,680 college students surveyed with the Cooperative Institutional Research Program (CIRP) Freshman Survey (2000) and later with the College Students’ Beliefs and Values (CSBV) Survey (2003) to examine gender differences on 13 spiritual characteristics and explore the personal and educational factors associated with changes in spirituality during college. The results showed marked gender differences in spiritual qualities, and gendered patterns of spiritual development were identified that are associated with religious identity, peer relationships, and science exposure.     

Gender and Preferences for Job Attributes: A Cross Cultural Comparison

This study examined attitudes toward work and worker compensation among American (n = 201) and Australian (n = 177) business students. Although country-related differences were found, the data did not support the presumption that men and women differ in preferences for job attributes or work-related attitudes that might influence career progression. Expectations for salary were not related to gender or to work experience. In contrast to a self-selection theory of attitude and occupational choice, similarities between men and women were apparent before career entry and not related to prior employment. Observed differences in work attitudes between countries appeared to reflect the greater emphasis placed on achievement through work by Americans.     

Emotion experience and regulation in China and the United States: How do culture and gender shape emotion responding?

Culture and gender shape emotion experience and regulation, in part because the value placed on emotions and the manner of their expression is thought to vary across these groups. This study tested the hypothesis that culture and gender would interact to predict people's emotion responding (emotion intensity and regulatory strategies). Chinese (n=220; 52% female) and American undergraduates (n=241; 62% female) viewed photos intended to elicit negative emotions after receiving instructions to either "just feel" any emotions that arose (Just Feel), or to "do something" so that they would not experience any emotion while viewing the photos (Regulate). All participants then rated the intensity of their experienced emotions and described any emotion-regulation strategies that they used while viewing the photos. Consistent with predictions, culture and gender interacted with experimental condition to predict intensity: Chinese men reported relatively low levels of emotion, whereas American women reported relatively high levels of emotion. Disengagement strategies (especially distancing) were related to lower emotional intensity and were reported most often by Chinese men. Taken together, findings suggest that emotion-regulation strategies may contribute to differences in emotional experience across Western and East Asian cultures.     

User perceptions of process-outcome linkages in pupil peer counselling for bullying services in the UK

Users of pupil peer counselling for bullying services (n=50) rated their most helpful and their least helpful experiences of these services on five counselling process variables. The aim was to identify which, if any, of these variables differentiated between the two types of experience. Participants gave significantly higher ratings to 'core conditions', 'client openness' and 'maintain positive self-regard', but significantly lower ratings to 'counsellor directiveness', for their most helpful experience than for their least helpful experience. No significant differences emerged for ratings of 'counsellor self-disclosure'. None of these effects were qualified by gender. The implications of these findings for providers of peer counselling for bullying services are discussed.     

The impact of family status on gender identity and on sex-typing of household tasks in Israel

The author examined differences in sex-typing of household tasks (adult gender roles and children's chores) and differences in gender identity among adult Israelis. The author compared 2 groups of participants: single people without children (single-family participants; n = 62) and married people with children (full-family participants; n = 62). Regarding sex-typing of household tasks and direct assessments of masculine and feminine identity, there were no differences between single-family participants and full-family participants. However, family status affected self-assessments of gender identity that were based on cultural definitions of masculine and feminine attributes. Furthermore, correlations between direct assessments of gender identity and sex-typing of household tasks differed according to family status.     

Loneliness among school-aged children and their parents

The aim of this study was to examine the existence of the intergenerational transmission of loneliness between parents and children, including an examination of its stability and of gender differences. The study consisted of an evaluation of loneliness in mothers ( n = 834), fathers ( n = 661) and their 10-year-old children ( n = 981). Parent's self-reported loneliness was measured once, and their children's social and emotional loneliness were assessed at three time-points. The stability analysis indicated average stability in children's loneliness, especially their social loneliness. Boys were found to experience more emotional loneliness than girls. Structural equation modeling indicated no direct relationship between mothers'/fathers' loneliness and their children's loneliness. However, mothers' and fathers' loneliness reduced their daughters' peer-evaluated cooperating skills, which consequently predicted higher levels of both social and emotional loneliness.     

Behavioral and physiological findings of gender differences in global-local visual processing

Hemispheric asymmetries in global-local visual processing are well-established, as are gender differences in cognition. Although hemispheric asymmetry presumably underlies gender differences in cognition, the literature on gender differences in global-local processing is sparse. We employed event related brain potential (ERP) recordings during performance of a global-local reaction time task to compare hemispheric asymmetries and processing biases in adult men (n=15) and women (n=15). Women responded more quickly to local targets while men did not differentially respond to hierarchical stimuli. ERP data indicated that women had P100 responses that were selectively lateralized to the left hemisphere in response to local targets and N150 responses that were smaller for global targets. They also had P300 responses that were greater following local stimuli. The physiological data demonstrate that male-female performance differences arise from biologically based differences in hemispheric asymmetry. Findings are discussed in the context of existing literature regarding gender differences, hemispheric specialization, and the role of stimulus characteristics.     

The spiritual well-being questionnaire: Testing for model applicability, measurement and structural equivalencies, and latent mean differences across gender

Fisher (1998) proposed a spiritual well-being model, comprising primary factors for the domains of personal, communal, environmental and transcendental well-being, that cohere to form a single higher order or global spiritual well-being dimension. In line with this model, Gomez and Fisher (2003) published the Spiritual Well-Being Questionnaire (SWBQ), with scales for measuring personal, communal, environmental and transcendental spiritual well-being. This study used multi-group confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to examine gender equivalencies of the measurement and structural models of the SWBQ, and the latent mean in the four SWBQ factors. A total of 3101 females and 1361 males, with age ranging from 15 to 32 years, completed the SWBQ. The statistical fit results supported the invariance of the measurement model, and some aspects of the structural model. The practical fit indices results provided support for the invariance of both the measurement and structural models. The results also showed little gender differences. Together, these findings support gender equivalencies for the SWBQ.     

Self-estimates of intelligence: a study in two African countries

Black and White South Africans (n = 181) and Nigerians (n = 135) completed a questionnaire concerning the estimations of their own and their relatives' (father, mother, sister, brother) multiple intelligences as well as beliefs about the IQ concept. In contrast to previous results (A. Furnham, 2001), there were few gender differences in self-estimates. In a comparison of Black and White South Africans, it was clear the Whites gave higher estimates for self, parents, and brothers. However, overall IQ estimates for self and all relatives hovered around the mean of 100. When Black South Africans and Nigerians were compared, there were both gender and nationality differences on the self-estimates with men giving higher self-estimates than women and Nigerians higher self-estimates than South Africans. There were also gender and nationality differences in the answers to questions about IQ. The authors discuss possible reasons for the relatively few gender differences in this study compared with other studies as well as possible reasons for the cross-cultural difference.     

Attitudes toward suicide in Japanese and American medical students.

The Suicide Opinion Questionnaire (SOQ) was administered to two samples of medical school students, from Japan (n = 80 males and 20 females) and the United States (n = 80 males and 20 females). A MANOVA followed by univariate tests indicated significant differences on the Right to die, Normality, and Aggression scales between Japanese and United States students, and significant gender differences on the Religion and Impulsivity scales. No gender by nationality interaction was obtained. An analysis of the individual SOQ items revealed substantial differences between Japanese and United States medical students in their views on suicide.     

THE MODERATING ROLES OF RACE AND GENDER-ROLE ATTITUDES IN THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SEXUAL HARASSMENT AND PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING

Although previous research has linked sexual harassment to negative psychological outcomes, few studies have focused on moderators of these relationships. The present study surveyed Black ( n = 88) and White ( n = 170) female undergraduates who endorsed experiences of sexual harassment to examine whether traditional gender attitudes differentially moderated the relationship between sexual harassment and three outcomes: posttraumatic stress symptoms, general clinical symptoms, and satisfaction with life. We replicated past findings that sexual harassment is related to negative outcomes. Further, the results supported our hypothesis that less traditional gender attitudes (i.e., more feminist attitudes) would buffer the negative effects of sexual harassment for White women, whereas the same attitudes would exacerbate its negative effects for Black women. We discuss reasons for these differences, including Black women's double consciousness and differences in the meaning of feminist and traditional gender attitudes for Black and White women.     

Gender Differences in Transformational Leadership: An Examination of Superior,Leader, and Subordinate Perspectives

This study examined gender differences intransformational leadership from multiple perspectives.The sample was employees of a large international bank inAustralia. Ratings were obtained from branch managers' (n = 120 female and n = 184 male), theirsuperiors (n = 32) and subordinates (n = 588). Thefindings showed that superiors evaluated female managersas more transformational than male managers. Consistent with the superior observations, at the globallevel, female managers rated themselves as moretransformational than males, however, at the morespecific, behavioral level of analysis, significantgender differences were noted only for those subscaleswhich are more interpersonally-oriented. Subordinatesevaluated their female and male leadersequally.     

Risk Preference Theory and Gender Differences in Religiousness: A Replication and Extension

Almost 25 years ago, Miller and Hoffmann developed a theory of risk preferences as a way to account for gender differences in religiousness. Although several subsequent studies have purportedly examined the theory, there has been no genuine replication of their empirical analysis. This study provides a replication and extension using three nationally representative samples of adolescents in the United States: the 2015 Monitoring the Future (n = 2,292) study, the 2010 National Survey of Drug Use and Health (n = 18,394), and the 2005 National Survey of Youth and Religion (n = 2,059). The results provide modest support for risk preference theory: the introduction of risk preferences diminishes the female‐male difference in religiousness among youth in all three data sets. However, there is also evidence that risk behaviors and religious affiliation may be more important than risk preferences in accounting for gender differences in religiousness.     

Gender and age differences in spiritual development among early adolescents

ABSTRACT

The current study examined age and gender effects on spiritual development among early adolescents. A total sample of 416 Czech adolescents, age ranged from 11 to 15 years, was analysed for the study. Data was collected employing a non-experimental survey design by utilizing a self-administered questionnaire. A series of independent t-tests were performed to determine whether there were significant age and gender differences across the spirituality indicators: spiritual well-being, spiritual belief, and experiential spirituality. Results indicated that 11-year-old adolescents were more likely to demonstrate a higher level of spiritual well-being and spiritual belief compared with those 15-year-old; while 15-year-old adolescents were more likely to score high in experiential spirituality than their younger counterparts. Regarding gender, girls were more likely than boys to demonstrate a higher level of spirituality score. Practitioners in education and psychology should be mindful of the use of spirituality interventions applying the respective forms and practices according to age and gender to better promote positive youth development.     

Gender differences in satisfaction with grandparenting

Grandmothers (n = 177) and grandfathers (n = 105) completed mail questionnaires covering demographic and family background, and grandparenting satisfaction and perceived responsibilities (disciplining, caretaking, helping, advising). Grandmothers' satisfaction scores significantly exceeded those of grandfathers, and different variables predicted men's and women's satisfaction scores. Discussion focuses on possible sources of these gender differences, and consequences of these differences for further research.     

Moral development and form of participation, type of sport, and sport experience

The present study investigated aspects of moral development in sport, according to the form of participation, type of sport, and sport experience. 510 participants, 14 to 49 years of age (M=24.9, SD=8.3) who came from organized competitive sports included athletes (n=327), referees (n=138), and coaches (n=45) in football (n = 161), handball (n = 198), and basketball (n = 150). Years of sport experience ranged from 1 to 6, 7 to 14, and 15 to 30 years of participation in sports. The Defining Issues Test was given; analysis showed no significant differences in development of moral reasoning among participants across different types of sports, forms of participation, and years of experience in sport.     

Predictors of depressive symptoms among resettled unaccompanied refugee minors

This study investigated the level and predictors of depressive symptoms among unaccompanied refugee minors after resettlement in Norway. Participants (N = 414) were resettled in 26 municipalities from all regions of the country. The average length of resettlement time was 3.4 years. They originated from 33 different countries, mainly Afghanistan (n = 116), Somalia (n = 74), Sri Lanka (n = 41) and Iraq (n = 43). Participants completed a self-report questionnaire administered in groups. Findings show that unaccompanied minors are a high-risk group for mental health problems also after resettlement in a new country. A multilevel model predicting depressive symptoms from individual and contextual demographic factors indicated that, controlling for post-traumatic stress, females had more symptoms than males and Somalis had fewer symptoms than participants from other countries. Variation in symptom levels as a function of gender and ethnic background indicates that some groups may have inherent protective or vulnerability factors that need to be further studied to understand differences in psychosocial adaptation among unaccompanied minors. Further, findings imply that researchers, policy makers and mental health care workers need to expand their attention beyond the first phases of arrival of unaccompanied asylum seeking and refugee minors to the continuing experience of mental health problems after resettlement.     

Psychological Dimensions of Unemployment: A Gender Comparison Between Belgian and South African Unemployed

This study sought to compare South African and Belgian unemployed in their subjective experience of unemployment, committed towards employment and job search behaviour. We also considered gender differences regarding the psychological dimensions of unemployment between Belgium and South Africa. A cross-sectional survey design was used. Unemployed people were sampled from the Potchefstroom area in South Africa (N = 381) and the Brussels area in Belgium (N = 305). The Experiences of Unemployment Questionnaire was administered. While no significant gender differences were found in South Africa, significant differences were found for all three psychological dimensions of unemployment in the Belgian sample. South African intervention programmes should be developed in order to cope with long-lasting unemployment, social isolation and further financial deprivation.     

Individual differences in moral development: The relation of sex, gender, and personality to morality

Individual differences in moral development are examined, with a particular emphasis on sex and gender differences. This examination includes an extensive review of the empirical and theoretical literature in psychology on morality. Based on this review, it is concluded that sex differences occur with less frequency and with a less systematic favoring of males than is predicted by several theories of moral development. In addition, a study is presented which considers the relation of sex, gender, and personality to morality. Two age cohort samples, college sophomores (n = 169) and adults (n = 151), were assessed with the moral judgment scale of the cognitive-developmental model (Kohlberg, 1984) and a newly developed moral character template of the personological model (Lifton, in press). Participants also completed the CPI and MMPI personality inventories. Results of the study indicate (1) the absence of sex differences for either model, (2) the presence of gender differences favoring masculine persons for the cognitive-developmental but not personological model, and (3) that individual differences in moral development parallel individual differences in personality development. The implications of these findings are discussed with regard to Gilligan's (1982) claim that men and women differ in their moral orientations. Finally, it is argued that an individual difference approach, particularly one that emphasizes personality, would prove useful for future research on moral development.