The Neural Bases of Strategy and Skill in Sentence–Picture Verification

This experiment used functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging to examine the relation between individual differences in cognitive skill and the amount of cortical activation engendered by two strategies (linguistic vs. visual–spatial) in a sentence–picture verification task. The verbal strategy produced more activation in language-related cortical regions (e.g., Broca's area), whereas the visual–spatial strategy produced more activation in regions that have been implicated in visual–spatial reasoning (e.g., parietal cortex). These relations were also modulated by individual differences in cognitive skill: Individuals with better verbal skills (as measured by the reading span test) had less activation in Broca's area when they used the verbal strategy. Similarly, individuals with better visual–spatial skills (as measured by the Vandenberg, 1971, mental rotation test) had less activation in the left parietal cortex when they used the visual-spatial strategy. These results indicate that language and visual–spatial processing are supported by partially separable networks of cortical regions and suggests one basis for strategy selection: the minimization of cognitive workload.     

Using fMRI to study recovery from acquired dysphasia

We have used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to characterize brain activations associated with two distinct language tasks performed by a 28-year-old woman after partial recovery from dysphasia due to a left frontal hemispheric ischemic stroke. MRI showed that her ischemic lesion extended posteriorly from the left inferior frontal to the perisylvian cortex. fMRI scans of both language tasks revealed substantial differences in activation pattern relative to controls. The nature of this difference was task-specific. During performance of a verbal semantic decision task, the patient, in contrast to controls, activated a network of brain areas that excluded the inferior frontal gyrus (in either hemisphere). A second task involving rhyme judgment was designed to place a heavier cognitive load on language production processes and activated the left inferior frontal gyrus (Broca's area) strongly in normal controls. During this task, the most prominent frontal activation in the patient occurred in the right homologue of Broca's area. Subsequent analysis of this data by methods able to deal with responses of changing amplitude revealed additional, less sustained recruitment by the patient of cortex adjacent to the infarct in the region inferior to Broca's area during rhyming. These results suggest that in addition to changes in cognitive strategy, recovery from dysphasia could be mediated by both the preservation of neuronal networks in and around the infarct and the use of homologous regions in the contralateral hemisphere.     

Individual differences in skilled adult readers reveal dissociable patterns of neural activity associated with component processes of reading

We used fMRI to examine patterns of brain activity associated with component processes of visual word recognition and their relationships to individual differences in reading skill. We manipulated both the judgments adults made on written stimuli and the characteristics of the stimuli. Phonological processing led to activation in left inferior frontal and temporal regions whereas semantic processing was associated with bilateral middle frontal activation. Individual differences in reading subskills were reflected in differences in the degree to which cortical regions were engaged during reading. Variation in sight word reading efficiency was associated with degree of activation in visual cortex. Increased phonological decoding skill was associated with greater activation in left temporo-parietal cortex. Greater reading comprehension ability was associated with decreased activation in anterior cingulate and temporal regions. Notably, associations between reading ability and neural activation indicate that brain/behavior relationships among skilled readers differ from patterns associated with dyslexia and reading development.     

Parental socioeconomic status and the neural basis of arithmetic: differential relations to verbal and visuo‐spatial representations

We examined the relation of parental socioeconomic status (SES) to the neural bases of subtraction in school‐age children (9‐ to 12‐year‐olds). We independently localized brain regions subserving verbal versus visuo‐spatial representations to determine whether the parental SES‐related differences in children's reliance on these neural representations vary as a function of math skill. At higher SES levels, higher skill was associated with greater recruitment of the left temporal cortex, identified by the verbal localizer. At lower SES levels, higher skill was associated with greater recruitment of right parietal cortex, identified by the visuo‐spatial localizer. This suggests that depending on parental SES, children engage different neural systems to solve subtraction problems. Furthermore, SES was related to the activation in the left temporal and frontal cortex during the independent verbal localizer task, but it was not related to activation during the independent visuo‐spatial localizer task. Differences in activation during the verbal localizer task in turn were related to differences in activation during the subtraction task in right parietal cortex. The relation was stronger at lower SES levels. This result suggests that SES‐related differences in the visuo‐spatial regions during subtraction might be based in SES‐related verbal differences.     

An fMRI study of sex differences in regional activation to a verbal and a spatial task

Sex differences in cognitive performance have been documented, women performing better on some phonological tasks and men on spatial tasks. An earlier fMRI study suggested sex differences in distributed brain activation during phonological processing, with bilateral activation seen in women while men showed primarily left-lateralized activation. This blood oxygen level-dependent fMRI study examined sex differences (14 men, 13 women) in activation for a spatial task (judgment of line orientation) compared to a verbal-reasoning task (analogies) that does not typically show sex differences. Task difficulty was manipulated. Hypothesized ROI-based analysis documented the expected left-lateralized changes for the verbal task in the inferior parietal and planum temporal regions in both men and women, but only men showed right-lateralized increase for the spatial task in these regions. Image-based analysis revealed a distributed network of cortical regions activated by the tasks, which consisted of the lateral frontal, medial frontal, mid-temporal, occipitoparietal, and occipital regions. The activation was more left lateralized for the verbal and more right for the spatial tasks, but men also showed some left activation for the spatial task, which was not seen in women. Increased task difficulty produced more distributed activation for the verbal and more circumscribed activation for the spatial task. The results suggest that failure to activate the appropriate hemisphere in regions directly involved in task performance may explain certain sex differences in performance. They also extend, for a spatial task, the principle that bilateral activation in a distributed cognitive system underlies sex differences in performance.     

Brain-behavior relationships in reading acquisition are modulated by socioeconomic factors

Functional neuroimaging may provide insights into the achievement gap in reading skill commonly observed across socioeconomic status (SES). Brain activation during reading tasks is known to be associated with individual differences in children's phonological language skills. By selecting children of equivalent phonological skill, yet diverse socioeconomic backgrounds, we use functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to demonstrate that a child's experience, as operationalized by SES, can systematically modulate the relationship between phonological language skills and reading-related brain activity in left fusiform and perisylvian regions. Specifically, at lower socioeconomic levels, individual differences in skill result in large differences in brain activation. In contrast, as SES increases, this relationship between phonological language skill and activation is attenuated. Socioeconomic background factors are thus found to modulate brain-behavior relationships in reading, indicating that cognitive, social, and neurobiological influences on reading development are fundamentally intertwined.     

Role of Verbal Working Memory in Complex Skill Acquisition

Although research has shown that general cognitive ability is related to performance during the initial stage of skill acquisition, empirical evidence is needed to increase understanding of the primary abilities responsible for the relation. We propose that verbal working memory is related to initial skill acquisition performance based on cognitive activities people enact when learning complex skills. After completing a general cognitive ability measure and a test of verbal working memory, 120 undergraduate students performed a complex computer simulation. The working memory test accounted for a meaningful amount of performance variance after statistically controlling for the general cognitive ability measure. These data suggest that tasks depending heavily on the activation of multiple knowledge structures may be understood in terms of individual differences in working memory.     

Changes in frontal and posterior cortical activity underlie the early emergence of executive function

Executive function (EF) is a key cognitive process that emerges in early childhood and facilitates children's ability to control their own behavior. Individual differences in EF skills early in life are predictive of quality‐of‐life outcomes 30 years later (Moffitt et al., 2011). What changes in the brain give rise to this critical cognitive ability? Traditionally, frontal cortex growth is thought to underlie changes in cognitive control (Bunge & Zelazo, 2006; Moriguchi & Hiraki, 2009). However, more recent data highlight the importance of long‐range cortical interactions between frontal and posterior brain regions. Here, we test the hypothesis that developmental changes in EF skills reflect changes in how posterior and frontal brain regions work together. Results show that children who fail a “hard” version of an EF task and who are thought to have an immature frontal cortex, show robust frontal activity in an “easy” version of the task. We show how this effect can arise via posterior brain regions that provide on‐the‐job training for the frontal cortex, effectively teaching the frontal cortex adaptive patterns of brain activity on “easy” EF tasks. In this case, frontal cortex activation can be seen as both the cause and the consequence of rule switching. Results also show that older children have differential posterior cortical activation on “easy” and “hard” tasks that reflects continued refinement of brain networks even in skilled children. These data set the stage for new training programs to foster the development of EF skills in at‐risk children.     

The role of instruction preference in analogy learning: Brain activity and motor performance

This study examined the role of verbal instruction preference when learning motor skills by analogy. During skill learning, analogies are a useful tool for providing knowledge about how to move. It has been argued that analogy instructions reduce reliance on verbal information processes during motor planning, compared to traditional forms of instruction (i.e., explicit rules about how to move). This may be reflected by reduced verbal activity in the brain, measured by EEG alpha power at the temporal region, as well as reduced verbal-motor cross-communication (EEG T7-Fz coherence) during the preparation phase of a movement. Preference for using verbal or visual instructions is likely to influence the efficacy of analogy instructions. This study investigated whether preference for verbal instructions was related to a) changes in performance and b) changes in verbal-cognitive information processing during performance of an adapted basketball task after instruction by analogy. Basketball novices with a high preference for verbal instructions (n = 15) showed significantly decreased activation of verbal brain regions when they used the analogy (high-alpha power), but their performance remained stable. Novices with a low preference for verbal instructions (n = 13) did not show a significant decrease in activation of verbal regions, and their performance deteriorated significantly after introduction of the analogy instruction. It is likely that both cognitive and performance changes after analogy instruction depend on personal aspects of information processing, such as verbal preference.     

Characteristics and Components of the TADS CBT Approach

In this paper, we describe the Acute phase of a cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) developed for and utilized in the Treatment for Adolescents with Depression Study (TADS). The Acute phase of TADS CBT consists of eight skills that were considered essential to any CBT intervention for adolescent depression (e.g., mood monitoring, increasing pleasant activities, identifying cognitive distortions and developing realistic counter-thoughts). In addition, five optional individual CBT skills (e.g., relaxation, affect regulation) can be incorporated into treatment, depending on the needs of the adolescent. We describe each of these individual skills by reviewing the rationale for their inclusion in the treatment protocol and describing the format that is used to teach the skill area. Recommendations are provided for dealing with common challenges that can occur in the teaching of each skill module. It is our hope that clinicians will find this a useful introduction to this particular form of treatment and a practical guide to dealing with clinical problems common to the delivery of any cognitive behavioral intervention with depressed teens.     

Spatial tapping interferes with the processing of linguistic spatial relations.

Simple spatial relations may be represented either in a propositional format that is dependent on verbal rehearsal or in a picture-like format that is maintained by visual-spatial rehearsal. In sentence-picture and picture-picture verification tasks, we examined the effect of an articulatory suppression and a spatial tapping dual task on the encoding of simple spatial relations (e.g., triangle left of circle). Articulatory suppression did not interfere, while spatial tapping lowered performance in both tasks. Apparently, both linguistic and perceptual inputs of simple spatial relations engaged the visual-spatial working memory. In the sentence-picture verification experiments, spatial tapping only hampered performance of participants who were classified on the basis of their RT patterns as having used a visual-spatial strategy, while it had no effect for those who were classified as having applied a verbal strategy. Therefore, this study provides converging evidence, using a dual-task methodology, that both separate verbal and visual-spatial strategies exist for the processing of simple spatial sentences.     

Resisting emotional interference: Brain regions facilitating working memory performance during negative distraction

Survival-relevant information has privileged access to our awareness even during active cognitive engagement. Previous work has demonstrated that during working memory (WM) negative emotional distraction disrupts activation in the lateral prefrontal regions while also engaging the amygdala. Here, using slow eventrelated fMRI, we replicate and extend previous work examining the effect of negative emotional distraction on WM: (1) We demonstrate that prefrontal regions showed activation differences between correct and incorrect trials during negative, but not neutral, distraction. Specifically, frontopolar prefrontal cortex showed more deactivation for incorrect trials faced with negative distraction, whereas ventrolateral prefrontal regions showed less activation; (2) individual differences in amygdala activity predicted WM performance during negative as well as neutral distraction, such that lower activity predicted better performance; and (3) amygdala showed negative correlations with prefrontal and parietal cortical regions during resting state. However, during negative distraction, amygdala signals were more negatively correlated with prefrontal cortical regions than was found for resting state and neutral distraction. These results provide further evidence for an inverse relationship between dorsal prefrontal cortical regions and the amygdala when processing aversive stimuli competes with ongoing cognitive operations, and further support the importance of the prefrontal cortex in resisting emotional interference. Supplemental materials associated with this article may be downloaded from http://cabn.psychonomic-journals .org/content/supplemental.     

Indices of Laterality in Turner Syndrome

The present study explored the utility of manual laterality in predicting verbal and visual-spatial functioning and educational placement among girls and adolescents with Turner syndrome (TS). A significant curvilinear relationship emerged between derived Performance Intelligence Quotient (PIQ) and motor skill laterality such that either very strong or very weak laterality was less advantageous for visual-spatial skills than moderate laterality. A significant negative correlation, but no curvilinear relation, emerged between derived Verbal Intelligence Quotient (VIQ) and degree of motor skill laterality, with more strongly lateralized participants showing lower verbal skills than weakly lateralized participants. Hand preference category showed no significant relationships with VIQ, PIQ, or educational placement.     

Brain activation during semantic processing in autism spectrum disorders via functional magnetic resonance imaging

Language and communication deficits are core features of autism spectrum disorders (ASD), even in high-functioning adults with ASD. This study investigated brain activation patterns using functional magnetic resonance imaging in right-handed adult males with ASD and a control group, matched on age, handedness, and verbal IQ. Semantic processing in the controls produced robust activation in Broca's area (left inferior frontal gyrus) and in superior medial frontal gyrus and right cerebellum. The ASD group had substantially reduced Broca's activation, but increased left temporal (Wernicke's) activation. Furthermore, the ASD group showed diminished activation differences between concrete and abstract words, consistent with behavioral studies. The current study suggests Broca's area is a region of abnormal neurodevelopment in ASD, which may be linked with semantic and related language deficits frequently observed in ASD.     

Individual and age-related differences in children’s working memory

The purpose of this study was to investigate the degree to which age-related and individual differences in children’s working memory (WM) are due to a general or task-specific capacity system. Experiment 1 correlated children’s (N=146; age range 5–19 years) verbal and visual-spatial working memory performance with various intelligence and achievement measures. The results supporting a general system were that (1) visual-spatial and verbal WM measures were significantly intercorrelated with and without age partialed out and (2) both verbal and visual-spatial WM measures were significantly correlated with diverse achievement and intelligence measures. Experiment 2 compared three age groups (N=192; 7-, 10-, and 13-year-olds) on working-memory performance tasks under initial, enhanced (cued), and maintenance conditions. The results supporting a general capacity system were that (1) age-related performance differences in WM were found on all conditions and not isolated to specific processes, (2) the maintenance measures (high-load condition) predicted the variance better in age-related performance than process measures, and (3) although individual differences in WM performance reflected two independent operations, these operations produced similar correlations to achievement within age groups. Overall, the results support a general capacity explanation of age-related and individual differences in children’s WM performance.     

Manipulation of frontal brain asymmetry by cognitive tasks

The purpose of the present study was to evaluate whether verbal fluency tasks may specifically induce relatively greater left than right hemispheric activation in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. The effectiveness of the manipulation was evaluated by EEG, which was recorded during performance of the verbal fluency task and during two control conditions, i.e., a baseline condition without cognitive demands, and a mental arithmetic task, respectively. The results demonstrate that the desired effect can only be achieved in individuals with good performance on the verbal fluency task. Good and poor performers do not only differ in lateral asymmetry, but also in the most affected region within the prefrontal cortex. Whereas good performers show relatively increased activation in the cortical region and hemisphere putatively most specialized for this kind of task (i.e., the left dorsolateral frontal cortex), poor performers show a marked shift of frontopolar asymmetry to the right.     

Schizotypy,cognitive performance,and genetic risk for schizophrenia in a non-clinical population

Schizophrenia risk alleles are expected to mediate effects on cognitive task performance, and aspects of personality including schizotypy, in nonclinical populations. We investigated how 32 of the best-validated schizophrenia risk alleles, singly and as summed genetic risk, were related to measures of schizotypal personality and measures of two aspects of cognitive performance, verbal skills (vocabulary) and visual-spatial skills (mental rotation), in healthy individuals. Summed genetic risk score was not associated with levels of total schizotypy or its three main subscales. Similarly, genotypic variation at none of the individual risk loci was related to cognitive performance measures, after correction for multiple tests. Higher overall genetic risk score was, however, associated with lower performance on the mental rotation test in males, with a broad set of loci contributing to this effect. These results imply that there is a lack of linear, genetically-based continuity connecting schizotypal cognition with the expression of schizophrenia itself, and indicate that, for males, higher genetic risk of schizophrenia exerts negative effects on visual-spatial skills, as measured by mental rotation.     

EEG correlates of behavioural laterality: right-handedness

Among right-handers, the magnitude of differences in proficiency between the left and right hands varies considerably. Yet significance of the extent of right-handedness is still a controversial issue. To examine whether individual differences in asymmetry of hand skill can partly be attributed to individual differences in asymmetrical hemispheric activation, handedness and electroencephalographic (EEG) laterality were correlated in two large samples (ns = 60 and 128). Analysis indicated that part of the variability in right-handedness may arise from activation asymmetries in the cortex, but whether this relation becomes apparent depends on the cortical area examined and on the experimental condition under which the EEG measures are taken.