Correspondence in pictorial space

ATR Human Information Processing Research Laboratories, Kyoto, Japan We have investigated psychophysically determined image correspondences between pairs of photographs of a single three-dimensional (3-D) object in various poses. These correspondences were obtained by presenting the pictures simultaneously, side by side, and letting the subject match a marker in one picture with a marker (under manual control) in the other picture. Between poses, the object was rotated about a fixed vertical axis; thus, the shifts of the veridical correspondences (with respect to the surface of the object) were very nearly horizontal. In fact, the subjects produced appreciable scatter in both horizontal and vertical directions. The scatter in repeated sessions and between data depends on the local (landmarks) and global (interpolation) structure of the pictures. Since the object was fairly smooth (white semigloss finish) and nontextured, the only way to establish the correspondence is by way of the “pictorial relief.” The relief is some largely unknown function of the image structure and the observer. Apparently, more immediate entities (e.g., the shading or the contour) cannot be used as such, since they vary with the pose. We compare these data with results obtained with a surface attitude probe on a single picture. We studied various measures of consistency both within a single method and between methods. We found that subjects were confident in establishing correspondences, but results scattered appreciably in a way that depended on both global and local image structure. Correspondence results for various pose angles were mutually very consistent, but only to a minor extent with results of attitude measurements. The main finding was that subjects could establish correspondence on the basis of their 3-D interpretation (pictorial relief), even if the 2-D graytone distributions are quite different.     

The influence of illumination direction on the pictorial reliefs of Lambertian surfaces

In order to assess the influence of illumination direction on shape constancy, we studied the pictorial relief of computer images of globular 3-D objects. We used two globally convex objects, one with a furrow and one with a dimple. Observers adjusted local surface attitude probes at 200-250 different locations in the image such that they seemed to lie on the pictorial surface. We manipulated the viewing direction and the illumination direction in a 2 x 2 orthogonal design. Viewing directions were chosen such that the image contained only a few, or no, contour singularities. Changes in the illumination direction were found to induce systematic changes in the settings for both viewing directions. Effects were especially pronounced for images that had no contour singularities. The results showed that a change in the illumination direction can change the local shape of the pictorial relief in addition to the bas-relief ambiguities of scaling and shearing in depth. We found that concavities in the pictorial relief are associated with the darker areas in the image. The deviation from shape constancy cannot be explained by bas-relief ambiguity since the required transformation between the shapes is nonlinear.     

Ambiguity and the 'mental eye' in pictorial relief

Photographs of scenes do not determine scenes in the sense that infinitely many different scenes could have given rise to any given photograph. In psychophysical experiments, observers have (at least partially) to resolve these ambiguities. The ambiguities also allow them to vary their response within the space of 'veridical' responses. Such variations may well be called 'the beholder's share' since they do not depend causally on the available depth cues. We determined the pictorial relief for four observers, four stimuli, and four different tasks. In all cases we addressed issues of reliability (scatter on repeated trials) and consistency (how well the data can be explained via a smooth surface, any surface). All data were converted to depth maps which allows us to compare the relief from the different operationalisations. As expected, pictorial relief can differ greatly either between observers (same stimulus, same task) or between operationalisations (same observer, same stimulus). However, when we factor out the essential ambiguity, these differences almost completely vanish and excellent agreement over tasks and observers pertains. Thus, observers often resolve the ambiguity in idiosyncratic ways, but mutually agree--even over tasks--in so far as their responses are causally dependent on the depth cues. A change of task often induces a change in 'mental perspective'. In such cases, the observers switch the 'beholder's share', which resolves the essential ambiguity through a change in viewpoint of their 'mental eye'.     

A pictorial attitude IAT as a measure of implicit motives

We tested the hypothesis that a pictorial attitude variant of the Implicit Association Test (PA‐IAT) is a valid measure of implicit motives. The PA‐IAT aims to capture attitudes towards pictures that are related to implicit motives. In the first two studies, we showed that the pictorial attitude Implicit Association Test (IAT) correlated more highly with non‐IAT measures of implicit motives than other IAT variants. In the third study, we established the validity of the PA‐IAT experimentally and showed that the pictorial attitude IAT correlated with non‐declarative behavioural measures only if implicit motives were aroused. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Pointing out of the picture

The eyes of portrayed people are often noticed to 'follow you' when you move with respect to a flat painting or photograph. We investigated this well-known effect through extensive measurements of pictorial relief and apparent orientation of the picture surface for a number of viewing conditions, including frontal and oblique views. We conclude that cases of both oblique and frontal viewing are very similar in that perception simply follows what is indicated by the proximal stimulus, even though this may imply that the (perceived) physical and pictorial spaces segregate. The effect of foreshortening then causes an apparent narrowing of pictorial objects. We find no evidence for any 'correction' mechanisms that might be specifically active in oblique viewing conditions.     

Infants’ responsiveness to pictorial depth cues in preferential-reaching studies: A meta-analysis

The findings of numerous preferential-reaching studies suggest that infants first respond to pictorial depth cues between 5 and 7 months of age. However, three recent preferential-reaching studies have found evidence of responsiveness to pictorial depth cues in 5-month-olds. We investigated these apparently contradictory results by conducting meta-analyses of the data from 5-month-olds who participated in preferential-reaching studies. The data from 16 samples, comprising 475 infants 5–5.5 months of age, were integrated. The results showed that the infants responded more consistently to depth relationships specified by pictorial cues under monocular than under binocular viewing conditions (p < .001), indicating that 5-month-old infants respond to pictorial depth cues. This effect remained significant (p < .001) when the individual experiments that had found significant results were omitted from the analysis. Although the majority of experiments were unable to find evidence of pictorial depth perception individually, this ability was clearly revealed when their results were combined.     

Ambiguity in pictorial depth

Pictorial space is the 3-D impression that one obtains when looking 'into' a 2-D picture. One is aware of 3-D 'opaque' objects. 'Pictorial reliefs' are the surfaces of such pictorial objects in 'pictorial space'. Photographs (or any pictures) do in no way fully specify physical scenes. Rather, any photograph is compatible with an infinite number of possible scenes that may be called 'metameric scenes'. If pictorial relief is one of these metameric scenes, the response may be considered 'veridical'. The conventional usage is more restrictive and is indeed inconsistent. Thus the observer has much freedom in arriving at such a 'veridical' response. To address this ambiguity, we determined the pictorial reliefs for eight observers, six pictures, and two psychophysical methods. We used 'methods of cross-sections' to operationalise pictorial reliefs. We find that linear regression of the depths of relief at corresponding locations in the picture for different observers often lead to very low (even insignificant) R2s. Thus the responses are idiosyncratic to a large degree. Perhaps surprisingly, we also observed that multiple regression of depth and picture coordinates at corresponding locations often lead to very high R2s. Often R2s increased from insignificant up to almost 1. Apparently, to a large extent 'depth' is irrelevant as a psychophysical variable, in the sense that it does not uniquely account for the relation of the response to the pictorial structure. This clearly runs counter to the bulk of the literature on pictorial 'depth perception'. The invariant core of interindividual perception proves to be of an 'affine' rather than a Euclidean nature; that is to say, 'pictorial space' is not simply the picture plane augmented with a depth dimension.     

What are the factors determining user intentions to use AV while impaired?

In this study, we employ the Integrated Choice Latent Variable (ICLV) framework to model the public’s intention of using Autonomous Vehicles (AVs) while impaired under the influence of alcohol, medicine, or fatigue. We identify five latent constructs from psychometric indicators that define respondent’s perception and attitudes towards AVs which are i) perceived benefits, ii) perceived risks, iii) enjoy driving, iv) wheels public transport attitude, and v) rails public transport attitude. We use these latent variables along with explanatory variables to study user intentions regarding delegation of vehicle control from human driving to autonomous driving. The study uses survey data collected from 1,065 Czech residents between 2017 and 2018. Our findings indicate that user intentions are primarily defined by attitudes rather than socio-demographic attributes. However, the inclusion of both types of variables is crucial in evaluating user intentions. Despite a positive outlook towards AVs, people were found to be reluctant in using AVs while impaired which can be attributed to distrust towards the technology. Our analysis shows that with appropriate efforts from policymakers, the public’s attitude can be changed to promote adoption. The efforts will have to be emphasized towards building positive attitudes (such as perceived benefits) and diminishing existing negative attitudes (such as perceived risks).     

Weakening the robustness of perspective: Evidence for a modified theory of compensation in picture perception

Viewed from the center of projection, a perspective picture presents the pictorial depth information of a scene. Knowing the center of projection, one can reconstruct the depicted scene. Assuming another viewpoint is the center of projection will cause one to reconstruct a transformed scene. Despite these transformations, we appreciate pictures from other viewpoints. The compensation hypothesis states that the visible picture surface allows observers to compensate for transformations by locating the center of projection and experiencing pictorial space from there. We show that observers neither completely compensate for nor experience transformations of space as geometry would predict. We propose a modified compensation hypothesis according to which different degrees of visibility of the picture surface invoke different degrees of compensation.     

Weakening the robustness of perspective: evidence for a modified theory of compensation in picture perception.

Viewed from the center of projection, a perspective picture presents the pictorial depth information of a scene. Knowing the center of projection, one can reconstruct the depicted scene. Assuming another viewpoint is the center of projection will cause one to reconstruct a transformed scene. Despite these transformations, we appreciate pictures from other viewpoints. The compensation hypothesis states that the visible picture surface allows observers to compensate for transformations by locating the center of projection and experiencing pictorial space from there. We show that observers neither completely compensate for nor experience transformations of space as geometry would predict. We propose a modified compensation hypothesis according to which different degrees of visibility of the picture surface invoke different degrees of compensation.     

The Campbell Paradigm as a Conceptual Alternative to the Expectation of Hypocrisy in Contemporary Attitude Research

Hypocrisy—professing a general attitude without implementing corresponding attitude-relevant behavior—is, according to Ajzen and Fishbein (2005), commonly found in attitude research that aims to explain individual behavior. We conducted two studies that adopted the Campbell paradigm, an alternative to the traditional understanding of attitudes. In a laboratory experiment, we found that specific attitude-relevant cooperation in a social dilemma was a function of people’s pre-existing general environmental attitude. In a quasi-experiment, we corroborated the reverse as well; engagement in attitude-relevant dietary practices was indicative of environmental attitude. When using Campbellian attitude measures, there is no room for hypocrisy: People put their general attitudes into specific attitude-relevant practices, and differences in people’s general attitudes can be derived from their attitude-relevant behavior.     

Children’s sensitivity to pictorial depth information

Children, ranging in age from 3 years, 4 months to 5 years, 4 months, were tested for sensitivity to interposition, height in field, linear perspective, and retinal size under either restricted (monocular, head motionless) or unrestricted (binocular, head free) picture surface viewing conditions. All of the subjects’ relative depth responses (near vs. far) to two toy houses were remarkably accurate with interposition and or height in field pictorial depth information. Retinal size had relatively little control over their responses, and the addition of linear perspective resulted in no significant improvement. Performance was nearly equivalent under the two viewing conditions, indicating young children’s ability to take a “pictorial attitude.”     

How green defaults promote environmentally friendly decisions: Attitude‐conditional default acceptance but attitude‐unconditional effects on actual choices

Defaults (i.e., options that become effective without an active choice) have been found to be powerful tools to influence decision‐making in a range of behavioral domains. However, seemingly conflicting assumptions have been expressed regarding the interplay of defaults with individual attitudes. Whereas some expect attitude‐conditional effects (i.e., a statistical default‐by‐attitude interaction), others assume an attitude‐unconditional effectiveness of defaults (i.e., statistically additive effects). Integrating both assumptions, we argue that the interplay of defaults and attitudes depends on what is considered a default effect. Specifically, whereas default acceptance is likely to be attitude‐conditional, we predicted that defaults and attitudes would add up in explaining people's actual choices. We tested these hypotheses in an online shopping scenario presenting environmentally friendly or conventional default products to 231 participants. Participants’ environmental attitude was assessed with the General Ecological Behavior scale and actual product choices were identified if participants rejected a given default product. In line with our hypotheses, default acceptance was predicted by a default‐by‐attitude interaction. In contrast, actual environmentally friendly product choices were found to be an additive function of defaults and participants’ environmental attitude. From an applied perspective, our findings suggest that defaults can readily be applied even in attitude‐heterogeneous target populations. Concurrently, however, our findings also speak of the importance of people's attitudes for understanding individual decision‐making.     

The combined influence of binocular disparity and shading on pictorial shape

The combined influence of binocular disparity and shading on pictorial shape was studied. Stimuli were several pairs of stereo photographs of real objects. The stereo base was 0, 7, or 14 cm, and the location of the light source was varied over three positions (one from about the viewpoint of the camera, one about perpendicular to the line of sight, and one in between the two). Therefore, in total, nine different combinations were studied. Subjects had to perform surface attitude settings at about 300 positions in the image plane. From the settings, depth maps were calculated on which a principal components analysis was performed. It was found that three components were enough to account for at least 97.8% of the variance in the data. The first component accounted for shape constancy. The effects of the two cues could be isolated as a linear combination of the other two components. The effects of the disparity and the shading cue variation were found to combine in almost linear fashion.     

The combined influence of binocular disparity and shading on pictorial shape

The combined influence of binocular disparity and shading on pictorial shape was studied. Stimuli were several pairs of stereo photographs of real objects. The stereo base was 0, 7, or 14 cm, and the location of the light source was varied over three positions (one from about the viewpoint of the camera, one about perpendicular to the line of sight, and one in between the two). Therefore, in total, nine different combinations were studied. Subjects had to perform surface attitude settings at about 300 positions in the image plane. From the settings, depth maps were calculated on which a principal components analysis was performed. It was found that three components were enough to account for at least 97.8% of the variance in the data. The first component accounted for shape constancy. The effects of the two cues could be isolated as a linear combination of the other two components. The effects of the disparity and the shading cue variation were found to combine in almost linear fashion.     

Attitude toward rehabilitation as a key predictor for adopting alternative identities in deradicalization programs: An investigation of terrorist detainees’ profiles

Several studies have shed light on factors that contribute to radicalization. However, fewer studies have addressed the factors that contribute to deradicalization, especially with terrorist detainees as participants. The present study investigates the role of attitudes toward rehabilitation in deradicalization programs, and its role in predicting the outcome for these programs. We hypothesized that when terrorist detainees adopt alternative identities (identities alternative to their jihadist identity), their support for jihad as war will be lessened, even when they still hold jihadist ideology as their source of significance. To test this hypothesis, we obtained 89 interview profiles of actual terrorist detainees across 35 Indonesian prisons. We found that lesser support for jihad as war was predicted by a more positive attitude toward the deradicalization program, and this was mediated by the adoption of alternative identities. Further, the effect of the mediator on support for jihad as war was neither weakened nor strengthened by perceived significance of jihadist ideology. These findings suggest that even when a person possesses a strong ideological commitment to jihad, this may not manifest into violence when they adopt alternative identities and goals. These results were interpreted and discussed through goal systems theory and the multifinality account of radical behavior.     

Similar mechanisms underlie curvature comparison by static and dynamic touch

In four experiments, we tested whether haptic comparison of curvature ranging from ?41m to +41m is qualitatively the same for static and for dynamic touch. In Experiments 1 and 3, we tested whether static and dynamic curvature discrimination are based on height differences, attitude (slope) differences, curvature differences, or a combination of these geometrical variables. It was found that both static and dynamic haptic curvature discrimination are based on attitude differences. In Experiments 2 and 4, we tested whether this mechanism leads to errors in the comparison of stimuli with different lengths for static and dynamic touch, respectively. If the judgments are based on attitude differences, subjects will make systematic errors in these comparisons. In both experiments, we found that subjects compared the curvatures of strips of the same length veridically, whereas they made systematic errors if they were required to compare the curvatures of strips of different lengths. Longer stimuli were judged to be more curved than shorter stimuli with the same curvature. We conclude that similar mechanisms underlie static and dynamic haptic curvature comparison. Moreover, additional data comparison showed that static and dynamic curvature comparison is not only qualitatively, but also quantitatively similar.     

Similar mechanisms underlie curvature comparison by static and dynamic touch.

In four experiments, we tested whether haptic comparison of curvature ranging from -4/m to +4/m is qualitatively the same for static and for dynamic touch. In Experiments 1 and 3, we tested whether static and dynamic curvature discrimination are based on height differences, attitude (slope) differences, curvature differences, or a combination of these geometrical variables. It was found that both static and dynamic hepatic curvature discrimination are based on attitude differences. In Experiments 2 and 4, we tested whether this mechanism leads to errors in the comparison of stimuli with different lengths for static and dynamic touch, respectively. If the judgments are based on attitude differences, subjects will make systematic errors in these comparisons. In both experiments, we found that subjects compared the curvatures of strips of the same length vertically, whereas they made systematic errors if they were required to compare the curvatures of strips of different lengths. Longer stimuli were judged to be more curved than shorter stimuli with the same curvature. We conclude that similar mechanisms underlie static and dynamic haptic curvature comparison. Moreover, additional data comparison showed that static and dynamic curvature comparison is not only qualitatively, but also quantitatively similar.     

When feeling right leads to being right in the reporting of implicitly-formed attitudes,or how I learned to stop worrying and trust my gut

Previous research indicates that attitudes can form via the implicit (unconscious) detection of covariations between attitude objects and other valenced stimuli (Olson & Fazio, 2001, 2002). We posit that due to the lack of awareness of their origins, attitudes resulting from implicit evaluative conditioning are more affective in nature and resemble gut intuitions more than rational beliefs. This suggests that circumstances exist when individuals will be more likely to express implicitly-formed attitudes, and across a correlational study and 2 experiments, the present research demonstrates factors that increase conditioning-consistent decision-making. Specifically, we demonstrate that feelings of intuitiveness and expertise, both of which can foster a sense that one can “trust one's gut,” lead one to express attitudes recently formed through an implicit evaluative conditioning procedure. We conclude that while implicit attitude formation may be a pervasive phenomenon, implicitly formed attitudes may be expressed only under certain conditions.