From Publics to Practitioners: Invention Power and Open Technoscience

Abstract

In technoscientific conditions what counts as knowledge creation is not primarily the individual experimental achievement that gives coherence to scientific practice and separates science from its publics; rather, it is a form of dispersed experimentation in more than human worlds: distributed invention power. Distributed invention power is organised and regulated through the pervasive securitisation of technoscience: surveillance and control of technoscientific fields as well as financialisation of its activities and research outputs. The securitisation of science reorders the traditional split between the public sphere, the private sector and the commons. The folding of each one of these spheres into the other underlies a constant, often antagonistic, oscillation between big science and open science. What is constitutive of the diverse movements that sustain open technoscience is not that they challenge technoscience as such but that they experiment with technoscience to create alternative forms of life.     

Towards a hermeneutic of technomedical objects

In this article I consider some central aspects of the naturalist philosophy of science and science and technology studies in dealing with the contested status of technoscience in medicine. Focusing on the concepts of realism and representation, I argue that theories of science-as-practice in naturalist philosophy of science should expand their scope so as to reflect more thoroughly on the social and political context of technoscience. I develop a hermeneutic of technomedical objects in order to highlight the internal connectedness between social action, material agency, and the actions of scientific communities. The framework thus developed is used to re-consider the genomic turn in medicine. Pointing to the discrepancies between socially dominant representations of genomic technology and the actual interventions brought about through those technologies, I raise the question of how and where to address problems of theory and policy.

Technoscience and the 'other' continental philosophy

This essay argues that with respect to trends in Euro-American philosophy there has been a growing disparity between practices on the Continent and North America with respect to technoscience studies. Whereas in, particularly northern European circles, a new canon of topics and authors has risen to prominence with respect to science and technology studies, this same interest is virtually lacking in the institutional programs of North American continental circles. Reasons for the lack of interest in science and technology in North American continentalism are explored. The disparities between Europe and North America include temporal dimensions in which science and technology is read anachronistically in continental circles in North America; canonical dimensions in which different authors are read; and contextual dimensions regarding where technoscience studies occur. There are, however, problem sets such as 'realism and relativism,' 'relations of humans and non-humans,' and roles of 'textuality' which could be seen as overlapping interest areas. The essay attempts to locate and introduce the issues and authors of this 'other' continentally interesting philosophy and recommends that Euro-American philosophers in North America begin to catch up with the newer trends.     

Prozac and the Post-human Politics of Cyborgs

Working through the lens of Donna Haraway's cyborg theory and directed at the example of Prozac, I address the dramatic rise of new technoscience in medicine and psychiatry. Haraway's cyborg theory insists on a conceptualization and a politics of technoscience that does not rely on universal “Truths” or universal “Goods” and does not attempt to return to the “pure” or the “natural.” Instead, Haraway helps us mix politics, ethics, and aesthetics with science and scientific recommendations, and she helps us understand that (without recourse to universal truth or universal good) questions of legitimacy in science come down to local questions of effect and inclusion. What, in the case of my example, are the effects of Prozac? And for whom? Who is included and empowered to create legitimate psychiatric knowledge? Who is excluded and why? And, what political strategies will increase the democratic health of psychiatric science and practice?     

Semantic interference from objects both in and out of a scene context

Prior studies have found that, despite the intentions of the participants, objects automatically activate their semantic representations; however, this research examined only objects presented in isolation without a background context. The present set of experiments examined the automaticity issue for objects presented in isolation as well as in scenes. In Experiments 1 and 2, words were categorized more slowly when they were embedded inside incongruent objects (e.g., the word chair in a picture of a duck) than inside neutral nonobjects, suggesting that the meanings of the objects were activated despite participants' intentions. A new interference task was introduced in Experiment 3. When the same objects and words from the first 2 experiments were inserted into scenes in which those objects were probable or improbable, interference occurred from probable pictured objects but not from improbable pictured objects. Implications for theories of automaticity and models of object identification are discussed.     

Serial search and comparison of features of imagined and perceived objects

Four experiments studied the spatial information processing involved in making a series of same-different comparisons of features of two objects. When the path between successively compared features on one object was antiparallel with the corresponding path on the other, comparison of a series of features took longer and produced many more errors. These results were observed both when the objects were externally presented and when one object was imagined and the other externally presented. Knowing the location of the next feature seems much more important for effective search than does monitoring the location of the feature used in the preceding comparison. When paths between corresponding features are parallel, search of features of one object may guide search of the other. When the directions between corresponding features are incongruous, search for the next angle may produce a competition for processes or processing resources, or may produce interfering cross-talk between the spatial information processing of the concurrent search tasks. Because of incongruity, as demonstrated in this study, serial search of objects at different orientations is difficult.     

The Renaissance of Francis Bacon

The program of intervening, manipulating, constructing and creating is central to natural and engineering sciences. A renewed wave of interest in this program has emerged within the recent practices and discourse of nano-technoscience. However, it is striking that, framed from the perspective of well-established epistemologies, the constructed technoscientific objects and engineered things remain invisible. Their ontological and epistemological status is unclear. The purpose of the present paper is to support present-day approaches to techno-objects (“ontology”) insofar as they make these hidden objects epistemologically perceivable. To accomplish this goal, it is inspiring to look back to the origin of the project of modernity and to its founding father: Francis Bacon. The thesis is that everything we need today for an adequate (dialectic-materialist), ontologically well-informed epistemology of technoscience can be found in the works of Bacon—this position will be called epistemological real-constructivism. Rather than describing it as realist or constructivist, empiricist or rationalist, Bacon’s position can best be understood as real-constructivist since it challenges modern dichotomies, including the dichotomy between epistemology and ontology. Such real-constructive turn might serve to promote the acknowledgement that natural and engineering sciences, in particular recent technosciences, are creating and producing the world we live in. Reflection upon the contemporary relevance of Bacon is intended as a contribution to the expanding and critical discussion on nano-technoscience.     

Judaism and the Dialogue of Religion and Science: A Personal Journey

ABSTRACT

Through a personal narrative about my own entry into the field of science and religion, the essay reflects on the interplay of religion and science in Judaism. In addition to documenting my involvement with the dialogue of religion and science, the essay provides a brief historical overview of the interplay of the relationship between science and religion in the case of Judaism and considers diverse approaches toward technoscience among the main strands of Judaism today. The essay ends by recognizing the importance of science in Jewish intellectual history and the potential contribution of Judaism to the field of religion and science.     

After-affects: How automatic evaluations influence the interpretation of subsequent, unrelated stimuli

Findings from three experiments suggest that participants’ automatic evaluations of subliminally presented objects influenced how they interpreted subsequent, unrelated objects. Participants defined homographs (Experiment 1), categorized objects and people (Experiment 2), and made person judgments (Experiment 3) that all could be disambiguated in either a positive or negative way. Participants’ responses to the ambiguous targets were evaluatively consistent with their automatic evaluations of preceding, semantically unrelated objects. The findings suggest that one’s automatic evaluations can influence deliberate judgments of subsequent stimuli, even when the only shared dimension between the initially evaluated objects and the judged objects is an evaluative one. The implications of these findings are discussed with regard to possible mechanisms of evaluative priming as well as previous research concerning evaluative priming effects on social judgment.     

EMBODIED SCIENCE: RECENTERING RELIGION-AND-SCIENCE

Neither religion nor science is first of all a realm of pure ideas, even though religion-and-science discussions often assume that they are. I propose that a concept of embodied science is more adequate and that religion-and-science should center its attention on science as enabler for improving the world (SEIW). This idea of science is rooted in Jerome Ravetz's concept of industrialized science and Donna Haraway's technoscience. SEIW describes the sociocultural context of science in commercial, government, and university settings. The chief focus of religion-and-science consequently takes into account five basic issues: (1) the kind of world we want, (2) liberating science, (3) human action and ethics, (4) religion and the world's possibilities, and (5) recovering myth. An underlying presupposition of the discussion is that understanding the world always involves as well an understanding of our being-in-the-world.     

Developmentalism And The Child In Nineteenth-Century Science

In recent years, public science events have been designed as a means to foster a dialogue between science and the public and to contribute to ongoing policy processes. Regardless of their tangible outcome, such events rely on a certain framing, reconfigure scientific knowledge and conceptualise the public in specific ways. These constructs are exemplified by a science festival that was held in the train station hall in Zurich. Novel insights can be gained from a spatial, an object and an actor-related approach borrowed from the artistic context: the discussions about the White Cube can be adapted to contribute to the analysis of the science festival. When we look into the spatial situation created to foster exchange about scientific knowledge, we find how the exhibition display is taking care of minor details. While the organisers transformed the station hall into a laboratory, they created a kind of dialogic situation that filled an authority gap as it equally enabled exchange. The objects put in place in the exemplary case helped to design a customer–supplier relationship between the public and science. Under the umbrella of the science event, a range of diverse research endeavours was homogenised and unified. The audience, finally, was invited to familiarise itself with scientific knowledge. However, they were allocated a consumer role that obliged them to remain guests in the laboratory environment of the station hall. Thus, public science events may be successful in attracting large attendance and allowing more experiences with science, but while they create novel forms of familiarisation with science for visitors, they do not necessarily remedy public doubts about science and technology.     

实物形状的知觉相似性对视觉隐喻加工的影响

视觉隐喻是众多研究者比较关注的领域, 当前多以物体简笔画、漫画及广告等方面的研究为主, 但对与生活密切相关的实物的视觉隐喻研究甚少。因此研究采用掩蔽启动范式、李克特9点量表及语音生成等研究方法, 在物体概念类型(概念相同、概念相异)及形状类型(形状相似、形状相异)条件下, 针对实物图片的形状知觉相似性是否对视觉隐喻加工产生影响进行探讨。结果发现无论物体概念是否相同, 形状相似性对个体的物体识别具有“促进”作用, 并有利于视觉隐喻加工; 在物体识别中, 当两个物体概念不同时, 个体会试图建立一个特设类别来对形状相似的物体进行归类, 从而实现了视觉隐喻的加工。因此研究进一步证明了实物形状的知觉相似性有利于视觉隐喻的加工。     

The physical symbol grounding problem

This paper presents an approach to solve the symbol grounding problem within the framework of embodied cognitive science. It will be argued that symbolic structures can be used within the paradigm of embodied cognitive science by adopting an alternative definition of a symbol. In this alternative definition, the symbol may be viewed as a structural coupling between an agent’s sensorimotor activations and its environment. A robotic experiment is presented in which mobile robots develop a symbolic structure from scratch by engaging in a series of language games. In this experiment it is shown that robots can develop a symbolic structure with which they can communicate the names of a few objects with a remarkable degree of success. It is further shown that, although the referents may be interpreted differently on different occasions, the objects are usually named with only one form.     

IN DEFENSE OF PUBLICS: PROJECTION,BIAS, AND CULTURAL NARRATIVES IN SCIENCE AND RELIGION DEBATES

John H. Evans's recent book Morals Not Knowledge is a timely argument to recognize broader social and cultural factors that might impact what U.S. religious publics think about the relationship between science and religion and their attitudes toward science and/or religion. While Evans's focus is primarily on what can be classed as moral issues, this response argues that there are other factors that sit within neither the older epistemic conflict model approach nor a moral conflict model approach that also merit further investigation. There is a significant need for further research that examines the social, psychological, (geo)political, and broader cultural factors shaping people's social identities in relation to science and religion debates. When undertaking such research, we need to be wary of creating a binary between scholarly and public space discourse. Social scientific research in this field should be led by public perceptions, attitudes, and views, not by concepts or frameworks that we project onto them.     

Challenges for the Democratic Management of Technoscience: Governance,Participation and the Political Today

Abstract

The democratic management of technoscience and techno-scientific products, in and by society, has become a contentious issue. The issues have been framed in diverse ways, often marginalizing the question of power and of political‐economic macro-regulations. This paper advocates more down-to-Earth, anti-euphemistic, and realpolitik-oriented ways of describing what organizes today's techno-scientific world. In our market-based democracies, dialogic and participatory democracy is not central to the regulation of technoscience, techno-scientific knowledge and products. These are regulated mainly by other institutions that lie outside the dialogic order. Democracy is not a political regime free from conflict; discourses of participation have become central elements of a new form of governmentality. New concepts such as ‘sustainable development’ may conceal more than they reveal about what is at stake. Deconstructing them in a systematic manner, and building genealogies of their deployment and acceptance, would be helpful.

These recent developments should induce us to reconsider two key questions: how to talk positively about various kinds of knowledge, and how to understand the various links between science, the political order and democracy. Today we are living at a time of maximal tension between two great historical dimensions of the ‘modernization’ process—one linked to democracy and its extension, the other to human invention and technophilic business. Given these developments, we should develop a reflexive look at the roles we play in the globalization process. We must take up these difficult and contradictory questions, while not restricting ourselves to what may be instrumentally realizable.     

The effects of sex-Typed labeling on preschool children's information-Seeking and retention

When preschool children are exposed to novel objects, will their tactual and verbal information seeking about these objects and the amount of information they remember about these objects be influenced by whether an adult labels them as things “for girls” or “for boys”? The findings reveal that children actually explored less frequently, asked fewer questions, and recalled the names of objects less frequently when the objects were labeled for the opposite sex than when they were labeled either for their own sex or for both sexes. The results are discussed both in terms of implications for adults who aim to broaden the scope of learning available to children and in terms of the need for additional research to clarify the relation between sex-typed labeling and memory mechanisms involved in facilitating or inhibiting recall.     

Children’s models of division

Young children find it much easier to solve concrete partitive division problems when the objects to be shared are grouped by the divisor rather than by the quotient, but the reverse is true in quotitive division problems [J. Exp. Child Psychol. 81 (2002a) 1; Dev. Sci. 5 (2002b) 452]. In previous research, the objects to be shared were grouped and the perceptual display was slightly different in the Grouping-by-Divisor and Grouping-by-Quotient conditions and this may have contributed to the difference between the conditions. In the study reported here, partitive and quotitive division problems were presented to 5–8-year-olds. The objects to be shared were presented in a grid and the “groups” were created by verbal instruction; the perceptual arrangement was identical in both conditions. The Grouping-by-Divisor condition remained significantly easier than the Grouping-by-Quotient condition in the partitive problems but the reverse was true in the quotitive problems. This shows that the perceptual arrangement of objects cannot fully explain the difference in difficulty between the Grouping-by-Divisor and Grouping-by-Quotient conditions and also provides support for the notion that young children rely on models that are based on restricted concrete representations when solving division problems. The results are discussed in terms of theories about the development of executive function, children’s attentional focus and the development of an integrated understanding of division.     

空间隐喻和形状变化对物体内隐时间概念加工的影响

通过2个实验, 考察了空间隐喻和形状变化对物体内隐时间概念加工的影响。实验1通过对隐含时间关系的词对的语义相关判断发现, 形状变化物体隐含的“先前/后来”的时间概念与“左/右”的空间概念存在着对应关系, 断裂式变化(形状变化大)的物体比渐进式变化(形状变化小)的物体激发了更加明显的时间变化感, 但物体形状变化类型并未明显地影响对词对语义相关判断的速度和准确性。实验2通过对隐含时间关系的物体图片对的语义相关判断发现, 物体形状变化隐含的“先前/后来”的时间概念与“左/右”的空间概念亦存在着对应关系, 而且物体形状变化类型影响对物体图片对语义相关判断的速度和准确性, 被试对渐进式变化物体的语义相关判断显著快于对断裂式变化物体的语义相关判断, 错误率亦低。整个研究表明, 在物体形状变化内隐时间概念的表征中, 既存在着抽象的符号表征, 又存在着具体的形状知觉表征。研究结果支持概念双加工理论的预言。     

No symmetry advantage when object matching involves accidental viewpoints

The presupposed advantage of symmetrical objects over asymmetrical objects was investigated in an object matching task, using accidental and non-accidental viewpoints. In addition, the accidental views could be symmetric or asymmetric. When two non-accidental views were presented, symmetrical objects were matched faster than asymmetrical objects. When an accidental view was presented first (followed by a non-accidental view), the matching of symmetrical objects was equal to that of asymmetrical objects. When a non-accidental view was presented first (followed by an accidental view), matching was again equal for the symmetrical and asymmetrical objects, although much faster compared with the opposite sequence of presented views. No effects of image symmetry in the accidental viewpoints were found. Apparently, the advantage of symmetrical objects over asymmetrical objects is only present in object matching when 3-D object structures are visible.     

A perceiver’s own abilities influence perception,even when observing others

Perceptual judgments of objects, such as judgments of their size, distance, and speed, are influenced by the perceiver’s ability to act on these objects. For example, objects that are easier to block appear to be moving slower than objects that are more difficult to block. These effects are known as action-specific effects. Recent research has found similar patterns when a person observes someone else act: When the other person’s task is more difficult, objects look farther away and faster to the observer, whereas when the other person’s task is easier, the objects look closer and slower to the observer. These previous findings that another person’s ability penetrates into perceptual judgments challenge the idea that action-specific effects are specific to the perceiver’s own abilities. However, in the present study, we show that the apparent effects of another person’s ability on the observer’s judgments are actually due to the observer’s own abilities as if he or she was in the other person’s situation. This implicates a type of self-projection motor simulation mechanism. The results also preserve the critical idea that action-specific effects are perceiver specific and, consequently, that they could be adaptive for planning future actions.