Marital disturbance and child problems: A cautionary note regarding hyperactive children

In previous work, investigators have found a relationship between marital discord and childhood conduct problems (aggression) in clinic samples. Given the wide variability of aggression found among hyperactive children,it would follow from previous work that child aggression may be associated with marital discord in a hyperactive population. This hypothesis was tested in a sample of 23 boys (ages 5 to 8) diagnosed as attention deficit with hyperactivity. Aggressive behaviors were tracked by the children's teachers for 12 school days. Parental and teacher ratings of conduct problems were also obtained. Additionally, the auditory version of the laboratory Continuous Performance Test was administered. Marital adjustment, overt hostility, and conflict tactics, as reported by the mothers, were not significantly correlated with any of the measures of aggression or conduct problems. In other words, marital discord in families with a hyperactive boy did not explain differential rates of aggressive behavior despite definite variability in both the marital and child behavioral measures. Marital discord was marginally related to severity of attentional deficit on the Continuous Performance Test. The results underscore the need for caution in attempting to extend findings from a general population (i.e., undifferentiated clinicreferred children) to a specific diagnostic subgroup (i.e., attention-deficit hyperactive children).     

父母心理控制与对立违抗障碍儿童抑郁和攻击行为的关系:父子依恋和母子依恋的中介效应

采用父母心理控制、亲子依恋、抑郁量表对从北京市、山东省和云南省14所小学筛选出来的246名对立违抗障碍(Oppositional Defiant Disorder,ODD)儿童进行施测,并由被试的班主任填写儿童攻击行为量表,考察父、母心理控制对ODD儿童抑郁和攻击行为的影响,以及父子依恋和母子依恋在其中的中介作用。结果发现:(1)ODD儿童中男生人数更多,且男孩的抑郁和攻击行为更严重;(2)父亲对男孩的心理控制更强,而母亲在对男孩和女孩的心理控制上没有显著差异;(3)父、母心理控制与ODD儿童的父子依恋、母子依恋和抑郁均呈显著相关,但只有父亲心理控制与ODD儿童的攻击行为显著相关;(4)父子依恋在父母心理控制和ODD儿童抑郁之间没有起到显著的中介作用,母子依恋在母亲心理控制和ODD儿童抑郁之间有显著的中介作用。父子依恋和母子依恋在父、母心理控制和ODD儿童攻击行为之间均没有起到显著的中介作用。     

Sibling Hostility and Externalized Symptoms of Psychological Distress

Sibling verbal and physical abuse has been underrepresented in childhood maltreatment research as a potential contributor to lifetime aggression. This study investigated associations between sibling hostility (physical abuse, threats of violence, heated verbal conflict) and conduct disorder symptoms, trait hostility, and lifetime aggression after control for variance attributable to physical and sexual abuse, exposure to domestic violence, and peer bullying. Over 20% of the respondents from this university sample (N = 1,331) recalled high levels of sibling hostility from the ages of 5 to 16. The frequency of these acts served as a significant predictor in regression models for all of the criterion measures among the women. Relationships between sibling hostility and these externalized symptom indicators were more limited among the men. Acts of sibling hostility as infrequent as once a year were associated in the total sample with higher conduct disorder symptoms, reactive aggression, lifetime acts of physical aggression, and Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire subscale scores. These findings suggested that even low frequencies of sibling abuse may have a deleterious impact on temper management. Sibling hostility warrants systematic attention in the childhood maltreatment literature.     

Parental Behaviors During Family Interactions Predict Changes in Depression and Anxiety Symptoms During Adolescence

This study investigated the prospective, longitudinal relations between parental behaviors observed during parent-adolescent interactions, and the development of depression and anxiety symptoms in a community-based sample of 194 adolescents. Positive and negative parental behaviors were examined, with negative behaviors operationalized to distinguish between observed parental expressions of aggression and dysphoria. Results showed that higher levels of parental aggression prospectively predicted higher levels of both depression and anxiety symptoms in adolescents over two-and-a-half years, whereas higher levels of positive parental behaviors prospectively predicted lower levels of depression symptoms only. Parental dysphoric behavior was not related to changes in either symptom dimension. These results suggest that patterns of parental behaviors may be differentially associated with depressive versus anxious outcomes in adolescents, and highlight the potential role for family-focused prevention or treatment interventions aimed at reducing an escalation of depression and anxiety symptoms in adolescence.     

Family Conflict and Children's Internalizing and Externalizing Behavior: Protective Factors

The current investigation examined whether the positive association of family conflict to adolescent depression and conduct problems is attenuated by maternal, paternal, and peer attachment, and maternal and paternal monitoring, within a low-income, multiethnic sample of 284 adolescents. Parental attachment and monitoring moderated the link from family conflict to conduct problems but not depression; the relationships among family conflict, the hypothesized protective factors, and conduct problems were further modified by adolescent gender but not ethnicity. In general, higher levels of the hypothesized protective factors attenuated the relationship between family conflict and conduct problems for girls but exacerbated this relationship for boys. These findings suggest that, in general, parental attachment and monitoring served as protective factors for girls while serving as additional risk factors for boys in conflictual families.     

Early Exposure to Parental Depression and Parenting: Associations with Young Offspring’s Stress Physiology and Oppositional Behavior

Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis reactivity to stress is posited to play a role in the intergenerational transmission of risk for psychopathology and other negative outcomes in the offspring of depressed parents. We tested the hypothesis that the joint, interactive effects of exposure to parental depression during early childhood and parental hostility impact the development of young children’s stress physiology and early emerging behavior problems. A sample of 165 preschool-age children (81 boys, 84 girls), of whom 103 had a parent with a history of depression, was exposed to a stress-inducing laboratory task, and five salivary cortisol samples were obtained. Parents completed clinical interviews and an observational parent–child interaction task. We found that the offspring exposed to maternal depression during early childhood and whose parents displayed hostile parenting behaviors during an observational task evidenced high and increasing cortisol levels in response to a laboratory stressor. In addition, the total amount of exposure to maternal depression over the child’s life exerted a dose–response effect on the positive relation between parental hostility and child observed oppositional behavior. This study underscores the importance of the early rearing environment on young children’s stress physiology and early emerging behavior problems.     

Perceived Parental Hostility and Aggression,and Children’s Psychological Maladjustment,and Negative Personality Dispositions: A Meta-Analysis

The purpose of this meta-analysis is to explore relations between children’s perceptions of parental hostility/aggression, and their psychological maladjustment, and negative personality dispositions as postulated in interpersonal acceptance and rejection theory. The meta-analysis was based on 35 studies from 16 countries in four continents involving 13,406 children (52% boys and 48% girls). All studies included in the meta-analysis, used child versions of the Parental Acceptance-Rejection Questionnaire for Mothers and for Fathers (Child PARQ: Mothers and Fathers), as well as the child version of the Personality Assessment Questionnaire (Child PAQ). Results showed that both maternal and paternal hostility/aggression correlated significantly with the psychological maladjustment and with all seven negative personality dispositions, including (1) hostility/aggression, (2) dependence or defensive independence, (3) negative self-esteem, (4) negative self-adequacy, (5) emotional instability, (6) emotional unresponsiveness, and (7) negative worldview of children across ethnicities, cultures, and geographical boundaries. Results further revealed that perceived maternal than paternal hostility/aggression has significantly stronger relations with children’s psychological maladjustment globally.     

Multilevel Correlates of Childhood Physical Aggression and Prosocial Behavior

The study identified independent individual, family, and neighborhood correlates of children's physical aggression and prosocial behavior. Participants were 2,745 2–11-year olds nested in 1,982 families, which were themselves nested in 96 Canadian neighborhoods. Hierarchical linear modeling showed that the total variation explained by the three-level model was 28.03% for physical aggression and 17.57% for prosocial behavior. For both childhood behaviors, approximately 66% of this explained variance was between individuals and up to 30% was between families. The smallest amount of observed variation was between neighborhoods. Significant individual-level predictors common to both childhood behaviors were child's sex and maternal hostility toward the target child. Specifically, boys had more mother-reported physical aggression and less prosocial behavior. Children who experienced greater-than-average maternal hostility (compared to siblings) were more physically aggressive and less prosocial. At the family level, significant common predictors were mother depressed mood and punitive parenting. Children had higher levels of physical aggression and lower levels of prosocial behavior in families where mothers had greater depressed mood and used more punitive parenting practices. At the neighborhood level, greater perceived problems and lower poverty level were associated with higher levels of physical aggression. Results are discussed with reference to past and future studies of multilevel effects on children's socialization.     

Risk factors for male-to-female partner physical abuse

We review the risk and protective factors for male-to-female partner physical abuse and present effect sizes. We distinguish among the various operationalizations of physical aggression (e.g., men in court mandated abuse programs, men identified through a single item on the CTS). Overall, however, several risk factors showed moderate to strong effect sizes. Perpetrator factors include SES, education, history of child sexual victimization, exposure to parental physical and/or verbal aggression, violent adult models in childhood, non-family aggression by parent, elevated levels of state and trait anger and hostility; various personality disorders; various Axis I psychopathology, particularly depression alcohol and drug abuse; deficits in spouse-specific assertiveness; and attitudes that condone abuse. Risk factors for women being victimized included less education, unemployment, and history of child emotional/verbal victimization.     

父母消极抚养方式与父母冲突和青少年社会适应的关系

以720名小学、初中和高中生为被试,采用问卷法,探讨父母消极抚养方式与父母冲突和青少年社会适应的关系,并检验父母消极抚养方式在父母冲突与青少年适应间的中介作用。结果发现：（1）与孩子有关的父母冲突显著多于与父母自身有关的冲突,初中生报告的两种冲突显著多于小学生;母亲消极抚养显著多于父亲,父母对男生的消极抚养显著多于女生,父母对初中生的消极抚养显著多于小学生;青少年的抑郁、学习问题较多,在抑郁、不良行为上存在显著的性别主效应,女生抑郁多于男生,男生的不良行为多于女生。在抑郁、学习问题和不良行为上存在显著年级主效应,初、高中生的抑郁、学习问题和不良行为显著多于小学生;（2）与孩子或父母有关的冲突越多,父母消极抚养越多;（3）父母消极抚养越多,青少年抑郁、不良行为、学习问题越多;（4）父母消极抚养在父母冲突与青少年社会适应中起部分中介作用。     

Maternal attributions and young children's conduct problems: a longitudinal study

The association between negative maternal attributions and child conduct problems is well established in correlational studies. However, little is known about how these variables influence each other over time. The present study examined patterns of prediction over time between maternal attributions and pre‐school conduct problems. Sixty mothers and their 3‐year‐old children with a range of levels of conduct problems were interviewed when the child was just 3, and then again when the child was just 4. Childhood conduct problems were assessed using the parental account of childhood symptoms and parental attributions were assessed using a modification of Walker's Parental Attribution Questionnaire. Results indicate that even as young as age 3, child conduct problems are associated with negative maternal attributions. In longitudinal analyses, children's conduct problems at age 3 predicted mothers' attributions at age 4, but mothers' attributions did not predict children's conduct problems over the same time period. The data are consistent with the notion that negative attributions may be a result, rather than a cause, of having a difficult‐to‐manage child. This has implications for current proposed mechanisms that link maternal attributions and child conduct problems, and thus for interventions for these problems. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Maternal depression and early positive parenting predict future conduct problems in young children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

Children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are at risk for adverse outcomes such as substance abuse and criminality, particularly if they develop conduct problems. Little is known about early predictors of the developmental course of conduct problems among children with ADHD, however. Parental psychopathology and parenting were assessed in 108 children who first met Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed.) criteria for ADHD at 4-7 years old. When demographic variables and baseline ADHD and conduct problems were controlled, maternal depression predicted conduct problems 2-8 years following the initial assessment, whereas positive parenting during the structured parent- child interaction task predicted fewer future conduct problems. These findings suggest that maternal depression is a risk factor, whereas early positive parenting is a protective factor, for the developmental course of conduct problems among children with ADHD.     

A model of perceived parenting,authenticity, contingent self-worth and internalized aggression among college students

The present study builds upon previous findings by examining parental psychological control in relation to two distinct traits of the self (i.e., authenticity and contingent self-worth) and internalized aggression. A model was proposed with authenticity and contingent self-worth as serial mediators of the relationship between parental psychological control and internalized aggression. Structural equation modeling demonstrated near perfect fit of the model. Parental psychological control was inversely related to authenticity, lower authenticity was related to higher contingent self-worth, and contingent self-worth was positively related to internalized aggression. Results are discussed within the context of previous findings and directions for future research are proposed.     

Major depression in the transition to adulthood: risks and impairments.

An ongoing longitudinal community study (N = 375) examined childhood risks and later adult impairments associated with 1-year Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (3rd ed., rev.; American Psychiatric Association, 1987) diagnoses of major depression during the transition to adulthood. Risks from birth to age 9 were reported by mothers, participants, and teachers. Teacher-reported hostility at age 6 predicted later depression. At age 9, self-perceptions of anxiety/depression, unpopularity, familial rejection, and abuse were potent risks. For men, neonatal and childhood health problems predicted later depression. For women, risks included family constellation, parental death, and poor academic achievement at age 9. Men and women who were depressed at age 18, age 21, or both demonstrated extensive psychosocial impairments in early adulthood, including poor overall functioning, interpersonal and behavioral problems, low self-esteem, and suicidality.     

Parental Attitudes,Beliefs, and Responses to Childhood Obsessive Compulsive Disorder: The Parental Attitudes and Behaviors Scale

ABSTRACT

This paper documents preliminary examination of the factor structure and psychometric properties of the Parental Attitudes and Behaviors Scale (PABS), an OCD-specific measure of parental attitudes, beliefs, and behavioral strategies related to childhood OCD. Employing a sample of 123 youth (mean age = 11.7; 59% male, 79% Caucasian) diagnosed with OCD in an outpatient child anxiety clinic, we used exploratory factor analysis to produce a 3-factor solution representing the following domains of parental responses to childhood OCD: accommodation, empowerment, and hostility/blame. These scales demonstrated adequate internal consistency and concurrent validity, providing preliminary evidence for the psychometric integrity of the PABS.     

Parenting and Anxiety: Bi-directional Relations in Young Children

Developmental psychopathologists have long posited a reciprocal relation between parenting behaviors and the development of child anxiety symptoms. Yet, little empirical research has utilized a longitudinal design that would allow exploration of this bi-directional influence. The present study examined the reciprocal relations between parental respect for autonomy, parental hostility, and parental support, and the development of childhood anxiety during a critical developmental period-the transition from preschool to kindergarten and then first grade. Study participants included a community sample of 391 male and 405 female socioeconomically, racially and ethnically diverse 4 to 6–7 year olds. 54 % of the sample was White, non-Hispanic, 16.8 % was African American, 20.4 % was Hispanic, 2.4 % were Asian and 4.4 % self-identified as Other or mixed race. Parent report and observational methodology were used. Parenting and anxiety were found to interact reciprocally over time. Higher levels of age 4 anxiety led to reduced respect for child autonomy at age 5. At age 4 higher levels of parental hostility led to small increases in age 5 anxiety, and increased age 5 anxiety led to increased levels of age 6 parent hostility. Parental support at age 5 resulted in decreased anxiety symptoms at age 6–7 while higher age 5 anxiety levels were associated with reductions in age 6–7 parental support. No relations were found between these variables at the younger ages. Although the magnitude of these findings was small, they suggest that early treatment for childhood anxiety should include both parent intervention and direct treatment of the child’s anxiety symptoms.     

The Role of Parental Depressive Symptoms in Predicting Dysfunctional Discipline Among Parents at High-Risk for Child Maltreatment

Parental depressive symptoms are an important public health concern because they have been linked, in numerous previous studies, to negative parenting behaviors including dysfunctional discipline and child abuse and neglect. Taking this into consideration, parental depressive symptoms warrant particular attention among families with child maltreatment allegations—a group at high risk of dysfunctional discipline and future physical abuse. The current study sought to examine relations between parental depressive symptoms and dysfunctional discipline in an ethnically diverse sample of 234 families who were referred for psychological services due to concerns of child maltreatment. Referrals were made by school, medical, or child welfare personnel. 59.8 % of children were male and the average age was 7.05 years. Results indicated that parental depressive symptoms were significantly correlated with dysfunctional discipline including laxness, over-reactivity, and hostility. However, all three relations lost statistical significance after controlling for parental stress. The findings of this study suggest that well-documented relations between parental depression and negative parenting behavior may be driven by elevated parental stress rather than reflecting risks uniquely associated with depressive pathology.     

Remembrances of parental rejection are associated with loneliness as mediated by psychological maladjustment in young Bangladeshi men but not women

Loneliness is a significant public health issue that affects young adults. This investigation drew from interpersonal acceptance-rejection theory to understand how remembrances of parental rejection contributed to psychological maladjustment and loneliness in Bangladeshi college students (N = 300; 50% female). Students reported their remembrances of mothers' and fathers' acceptance-rejection, their current psychological maladjustment, and loneliness. Remembrances of rejection by parents in childhood were associated with psychological maladjustment (hostility/aggression, negative self-esteem, negative self-adequacy, emotional unresponsiveness, emotional instability, and negative worldview) for young adult men and women. Psychological maladjustment, in turn, was associated with feelings of loneliness in young adulthood for young men, but not women. Remembrances of parental rejection were also associated with greater hostility and aggression over and above general psychological functioning among both men and women. Findings are discussed in the context of different social and structural features of young adulthood for women and men in Bangladesh.     

Abusive parents' perceptions of child problem behaviors: An example of parental bias

The behavior of children in 21 child abusive and 21 nonabusive matched comparison families were compared using home observations performed by professional independent observers and parental report measures (Becker Bipolar Adjective Checklist, Child Behavior Checklist, Parent Daily Report). Parental report measures of child conduct problems differed significantly between the two groups, independent observations showed few significant differences in rates of either child or parental behaviors. Results are discussed in terms of the validity of parental perceptions and reports of child problem behaviors, the informativeness of differing reports for diagnosis and clinical treatment, and the need to gather corroboration across various sources and settings before clinical decisions are made that may irrevocably alter a child's future development.