Development and Validation of the Children's Assertiveness Inventory

The development and validation of the Children's Assertiveness Inventory are reported. Psychometric properties of the scale are detailed for the normal samples of grade school children and one sample of socially withdrawn children. Initial analyses indicate that the scale possesses high test-retest reliability and acceptable stability over time. Further, it adequately discriminates between normal and withdrawn samples, has acceptable convergent and discriminant validity, and possesses a meaningful factor structure. The potential research and clinical utility of the scale is discussed, and important social and developmental issues affecting the expression of assertiveness in children are addressed.     

What is the Revised Fear Survey Schedule for Children measuring?

The Fear Survey Schedule for Children-Revised (FSSC-R) is a widely used self-report questionnaire that purports to measure the number of fears and the overall level of fearfulness in children. A number of studies have shown that the ten most common childhood fears can be found on the Danger and Death subscale of the FSSC-R, with upwards of 50% of children endorsing such fears. However, some researchers (e.g., H. McCathie & S.H. Spence, 1991; Behaviour Research and Therapy, 29, 495-502) have questioned the validity of these findings, suggesting that these items do not reflect actual childhood fears that children have or experience on a daily or regular basis. Rather, they suggest that children are responding to these fear items as if they were actually occurring to them in the here and now. The current study examined the occurrence of five Danger and Death fears from the FSSC-R (i.e., "Not being able to breathe", "Being hit by a car or truck", "Falling from high places", "Bombing attacks or being invaded", and "Fire or getting burned") in a sample of normal school children aged eight to 12 years (N=102). More specifically, we used three different methods to asses these fears: (1). prevalence as determined by the standard FSSC-R procedure, (2). prevalence as determined by a fear list procedure, and (3). actual occurrence or prevalence of these fears in the past week, as determined by a diary method. Results indicated that while these fears ranked high when using the standard FSSC-R procedure, they were considerably less common when using the fear list procedure, and had a low probability of actual occurrence on a daily basis, as well as possessing a short duration and low intensity. Implications for the assessment of fears and the use of self-report measures like the FSSC-R are briefly discussed.     

What is the revised Fear Survey Schedule for Children measuring?

This study was designed to investigate parameters of children's fear in terms of frequency of fearful thoughts and avoidance behaviour. It is suggested that current measures such as the Fear Survey Schedule for Children--Revised (FSSC-R) do not assess fearful behaviour in the sense of the occurrence of fearful responding in daily life, but rather reflect a negative affective response to the thought of occurrence of specific events. A modified version of the FSSC-R examined the frequency of fearful thoughts/feelings and avoidance activities amongst 376 children aged 7-12 yr. Contrary to predictions, it was found that children reported high levels of fearful thoughts and avoidance behaviour to those items identified as the greatest fears on the FSSC-R, namely fears of injury, illness, death and danger. These events were typically of low probability (e.g. earthquakes) and the question was raised as to what children are responding to when they are asked to rate their fearful responses. The same pattern of results was reflected in older compared to younger children. It is suggested that even when children are asked to rate frequency of fearful thoughts or avoidance behaviour, they tend to respond to fear questionnaire items according to their affective response to the image or thought of the stimulus situation rather than their actual fear responses. Both the FSSC-R and the modified version were found to discriminate between teacher nominated high and low fearful children and to correlate significantly with a self report measure of anxiety.     

Fears in children and adolescents: reliability and generalizability across gender, age and nationality

In this study, the reliability and generalizability of the FSSC-R was explored across gender, age and nationality. 594 normal children and adolescents from the United States and 591 normal youths from Australia participated. Results confirmed that the schedule is internally consistent across these subject parameters, and that the factor structure is fairly robust. Future directions, including use of the schedule with client populations, are addressed.     

Validation and Standardization of the Dutch Trauma Symptom Checklist for Young Children in a Normative and Clinical Sample

The study aimed to describe the psychometric properties of the Dutch version of the Trauma Symptom Checklist for Young Children (TSCYC) in normative and clinical populations in the Netherlands. Caregivers’ ratings on the TSCYC were obtained for 1,802 children from the normal population, and for 515 children from a clinical population of traumatized children. In the clinical sample, additional measures were taken. The internal consistency and test-retest reliability of TSCYC scales were adequate. Confirmatory factor analysis showed acceptable fit on the putative scale structure. Regarding criterion validity, the clinical sample scored significantly higher on all clinical scales when compared to the normal population sample. Within the clinical sample, significant associations were found between TSCYC scales and convergent scales of other instruments. The Posttraumatic Stress-Total subscale demonstrated excellent discriminative ability between traumatized children and children from the normal population. The Dutch version of the TSCYC proved a valid and reliable instrument to measure trauma symptoms in young children through caregiver report, similar to the original American version. Further comparisons with diagnostic interviews are warranted.     

Marital Quality, Family Patterns, and Children's Fears and Social Anxiety

This study examined relationships among marital quality, family patterns, and children's fears, and social anxiety. Two types of family patterns were studied, adaptability and cohesion. Mothers of children aged 5–6, drawn from kindergartens in northern Israel, completed Hebrew versions of the ENRICH scale (abridged, for marital quality), FACES-III (adaptability and cohesion), the FSSC-R (fears), and the SASC-R (social anxiety). Family cohesion was negatively correlated with marital quality and positively correlated with children's social anxiety. Marital quality and family adaptability were inversely related to specific children's fears. Children's social anxiety was highly correlated with specific fears. These findings suggest that children from rigid, fused families or low quality marriages may be at risk for high levels of fears and social anxiety.     

FACTOR STRUCTURE AND VALIDATION OF THE JUNIOR EYSENCK PERSONALITY QUESTIONNAIRE BASED ON A ROMANIAN SAMPLE

A cross-cultural and clinical validity study of Junior Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (JEPQ) was performed on a Romanian unselected sample of 865 children and a clinical sample of 387 children aged 10-15. The loading pattern of the original form of JEPQ on Romanian children was compared with the English loading pattern; disagreement was found for 17,6% of P items, 16.6% of E items, 15% of N items, and 15% of L items. Concordance between JEPQ scores and clinical diagnosis (conduct disorders, adjustment reactions, and schizoid disorder of childhood and adolescence) was high for E scale, lower, but acceptable for N scale, and reduced for P scale.     

The Ohio Scales Youth Form: Expansion and Validation of a Self-Report Outcome Measure for Young Children

We examined the validity and reliability of a self-report outcome measure for children between the ages of 8 and 11. The Ohio Scales Problem Severity scale is a brief, practical outcome measure available in three parallel forms: Parent, Youth, and Agency Worker. The Youth Self-Report form is currently validated for children ages 12 and older. The Ohio Scales Problem Severity scale was administered to a clinical and comparison sample of children, ages 8–11, then readministered 1 week later to a subsample of children in order to examine test-retest reliability. The Ohio Scales demonstrated acceptable internal consistency and reliability. The Ohio Scales was significantly correlated with the Behavior Assessment System for Children (BASC) across both samples, providing evidence for concurrent validity. Children of the clinical sample reporting higher scores (i.e., more symptomatic) than the children of the comparison sample on the Ohio Scales, thereby demonstrating construct validity.     

Cross-cultural aspects of fears in African children and adolescents

The purpose of this study was to compare level and type of fears in Nigerian and Kenyan children using the Fear Survey Schedule for Children, Revised (FSSC-R; [Ollendick, T.H. (1983). Reliability and validity of the Revised Fear Survey Schedule for Children (FSSC-R). Behaviour Research and Therapy, 21, 685-692]). A total of 852 males and females between the ages of 8 and 17 were surveyed. Results indicated that Nigerian children reported significantly higher total fear than Kenyan children and that scores from both countries were higher than those found in the United States, Australia and China. This suggests that the cultures of Kenya and Nigeria may share a common variable that makes reporting of fears greater than that reported by children of other world cultures. In addition, Christian children in both countries reported higher levels of fear on several factors than Muslim children, indicating that Islamic beliefs may encourage children to report less fear or to deal with their fears better than Christian beliefs. Finally, children between the ages of 8 and 12 reported greater fear of the unknown than children between 13 and 17 years of age. Overall, these findings suggest that important cultural, religious and age differences exist for levels of childhood fears reported in Nigeria and Kenya.     

Specific fears as predictors of generalized anxiety in children

The study investigated the relationship between fear and anxiety in childhood. One hundred fifty-one children aged 6 to 11 years (mean=8.7 years) completed the Fear Survey Schedule for Children-Revised (FSSC-R) and the Revised Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale (RCMAS). Correlational analyses demonstrated that the FSSC-R and each of the fear factors were significantly correlated with each other and with the RCMAS score. A stepwise regression procedure was used to determine if the FSSC-R or any of its five factors was significantly related to scores on the RCMAS. Results indicated that Factor 1 (Failure and Criticism) accounted for 31% of the variance (p < .0001)and Factor 2 (Fear of the Unknown) accounted for an additional 1% of the variance (p < .03)in the RCMAS scores. The relationship between these results and those from a similar study with adults (Goetsch, Tishelman, & Adams, 1987), as well as how the results add to an understanding of childhood anxiety, is discussed.This study was supported by BRSG Grant S07RR0714917 from the Biomedical Research Support Grant Program, Division of Research Resources, National Institute of Health, to the Research Foundation of the State University of New York at Binghamton.     

Do childhood anxiety measures measure anxiety?

The Fear Survey Schedule for Children-Revised (FSSC-R), Revised-Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale (RCMAS), and the Modified State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children (STAIC-M) are three widely used self-report measures of childhood anxiety. While previous studies have established the reliability of these measures, their validity in discriminating anxious from non-anxious youngsters remains to be established. The present study examines the discriminant validity of the three measures by comparing clinic referred samples of boys with an anxiety disorder (n=105) or ADHD (n=59) with a community sample of never-psychiatrically-ill boys (n=49). Results indicated that the two patient groups differed significantly from the never-psychiatrically-ill group on the RCMAS and STAIC-M, but the anxious and ADHD groups did not differ from each other. None of the three groups differed on the FSSC-R. The implications of these findings for the assessment of childhood anxiety disorders are discussed.     

Anxiety disorders in African-American and white children

There are little available data on African-American children with anxiety disorders. Treatment-seeking African-American (n=30) and white children (n=139), with a current DSM-III-R anxiety disorder, were compared on sociodemographic background variables, clinical characteristics, and lifetime rates of specific DSM-III-R anxiety disorders. Overall, results suggested that the anxiety-disordered African-American and white children who sought treatment from an outpatient mental health facility were more similar than different. The two groups did, however, differ somewhat on several variables (trend only), including rates of school refusal, severity of primary anxiety disorder, lifetime prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder, and total scores on the Fear Survey Schedule for Children-Revised. More specifically, white children were more likely to present with school refusal and higher severity ratings, while African American children were more likely to have a history of posttraumatic stress disorder and score higher on the FSSC-R. The impact of these findings and the need for additional research are discussed.This study was supported in part by MH grant 40021 from the National Institute of Mental Health.     

Anxiety Symptoms and Fears in Hispanic and European American Children: Cross-Cultural Measurement Equivalence

The cross cultural equivalence of child (n = 217) and parent (n = 283) versions of the revised children’s manifest anxiety scale (RCMAS), multidimensional anxiety scale for children (MASC), and the fear survey schedule for children—revised (FSSC-R) was examined in Mexican youth in Mexico, and Hispanic and white European American youth in the USA. The RCMAS, MASC, and FSSC-R showed cross ethnic measurement equivalence. The Mexican and Hispanic youth reported more worries, and the Mexican youth reported more somatic symptoms than the European American youth. Per mother report, Mexican and Hispanic youth express more somatic symptoms than European American youth who also show the least number of fears of the unknown and fears of danger and death. The results support the validity of commonly used child anxiety measures with these populations and accrue evidence for greater anxiety and fear expression by Hispanic and Mexican youth in certain domains.

Empirically Supported Treatments for Insomnia

The purpose of this study was to examine the level of fears in Swedish children and to examine the relation of those fears to state and trait anxiety. The purpose was also to do a normative study of FSSC-R (Fear Survey Schedule for Children - Revised). In total, 550 children between 8 and 16 years of age answered the questionnaires. The results indicate that there are no gender differences in total fear score, factor scores and number of fears. In contrast to earlier results, there was no correlation between fear and trait anxiety; however, a modest correlation was found between fear and state anxiety     

Teachers' ratings of gross motor skills suffer from low concurrent validity

In this study an attempt was made to construct a reliable and valid unifactorial teachers' rating scale for gross motor ability. Study 1 (132 children from 3 to 7 years) revealed that reliability of the scale was acceptable and that the scale represented an unifactorial dimension. Two studies on concurrent validity of the scale with an experimental gross motor task (stepping-stone crossing), the unifactorial subtest Locomotion of the Test of Gross Motor Development and the subtest Balance of the Movement Assessment Battery for Children as criterion measures, did not produce acceptable validity coefficients. In both validation studies an age effect was found. It was concluded that factor specificity does not seem the answer to the usual low validity coefficients of multifactorial teachers' rating scales. An alternative approach is suggested in which the assessment of functional activities in daily situations is stressed. Finally, the inclusion of atypical groups in random samples, which is common practice in research on concurrent validity of screening instruments for children's motor problems, is discussed.     

Do the Wechsler scales underestimate the difference between verbal and performance abilities in children with language–related disorders?

The present paper examines the validity of the Wechsler scales with children with language-related disorders, with whom the scales were not originally normed. The general question is whether we can take measures of IQ, normed with a normal sample, and then validly use them as indicators of the same constructs with samples significantly different from the normed sample. In previous papers it was pointed out that the pattern structurally simple > moderately complex > complex tests can be observed in their IQ profiles within both the Verbal scale and the Performance scale. In this paper, it is hypothesized that this scatter of scores leads to an underestimation of the global V-P IQ differences for children with language-related disorders because there are more structurally complex tests on the Performance scale than on the Verbal scale. To test this hypothesis, "purer" V-P IQ differences were calculated by comparing the scores on Verbal and Performance tests of equal structural complexity. WPPSI and WISC-R data from four groups of children were analyzed: language-impaired children (n = 128), reading-impaired children (n = 112), children from dyslexic families (n = 51), and normal children (n = 49). When the effect of the difference in structural complexity was controlled for, it was found that the distribution of the revised V-P IQ difference was significantly more toward the negative end of the spectrum than the traditional V-P IQ differences for language-impaired and reading-impaired children, and approaching a significant level for children from dyslexic families. As hypothesized, there were no significant differences between the two distributions of V-P IQ differences for normal children. Practical and theoretical implications are discussed.     

The relationship of the Rorschach Schizophrenia Index to psychotic features in a child psychiatric sample

In this study we investigated the reliability and validity of the Rorschach Schizophrenia Index (SCZI) from Exner's (1978, 1993) Comprehensive System for a sample of 413 child psychiatric inpatients by examining relationships with the Personality Inventory for Children-Revised (PIC-R) and chart diagnoses. Interscorer reliability and internal consistency were acceptable. Multivariate analyses of variance results revealed significantly different PIC-R profiles for those with and without elevated SCZI scores, with significant differences emerging on the PIC-R Psychosis (PSY) scale and 2 cognitive triad scales (Intellectual Screening and Development), which have been reported to be more frequently elevated in PIC-R profiles of children with psychotic disorders. Significant differences were found across SCZI groups for the PSY scale, Reality Distortion scale, reality testing critical items and chart diagnoses of psychotic disorder. Implications for clinical interpretation of the SCZI with children and issues for further research with this population are discussed.     

An evaluation of the usefulness of the MMPI-2 F(p) scale

The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2) F(p) scale was developed by Arbisi and Ben-Porath (1995) by identification of 27 items endorsed by fewer than 20% of individuals in both normal and psychiatric samples. The F(p) scale was designed for applications in settings characterized by high base rates of serious psychopathology, such as psychiatric inpatient units, and is proposed as a useful scale in discriminating overreported protocols from those produced by patients with serious psychopathology. In this study we investigated the characteristics of this scale in a sample of 617 psychiatric inpatients who responded to the MMPI-2 under standard conditions, and 203 overreported protocols derived in research studies conducted with normal adult participants instructed to simulate various forms of serious psychopathology. Results of this study are consistent with prior reports of a relatively low frequency of item endorsement for F(p) scale items in psychiatric samples, and intercorrelations between the F(p) scale and the MMPI-2 basic clinical scales in clinical samples that are generally lower than those produced between either F or Fb and the basic clinical scales. However, this intercorrelational pattern between F(p) and the MMPI-2 basic scales was not as consistent for the overreported sample. Additionally, the F(p) scale appears to be effective in discriminating overreported from accurate MMPI-2 protocols, with some evidence that the optimal cutting scores for this and other MMPI-2 infrequency scales may differ as a function of gender. Finally, these findings do not show clear evidence of improved group prediction derived from the use of the F(p) scale in contrast to results obtainable through the use of the MMPI-2 F scale.     

Rorschach Assessment of Primitive Defenses: A Review

The Lerner & Lerner Scale for assessing primitive defenses is reviewed, According to its conceptual roots, initial studies assessed the scale's efficacy in distinguishing groups of borderline patients from groups of other diagnostic entities. Later studies extended the use of the scale to assess various clinical groups assumed to have a borderline personality structure. Results from several studies indicate a high level of reliability as judged by degree of interrater agreement. In a host of studies, the scale was found to be valid in distinguishing borderline patients from other types of patients, eating disordered patients from normal controls, and gender disturbed children from normal controls. Another Rorschach scale for assessing primitive defenses was also reviewed and compared.     

Rorschach assessment of primitive defenses: a review

The Lerner & Lerner Scale for assessing primitive defenses is reviewed. According to its conceptual roots, initial studies assessed the scale's efficacy in distinguishing groups of borderline patients from groups of other diagnostic entities. Later studies extended the use of the scale to assess various clinical groups assumed to have a borderline personality structure. Results from several studies indicate a high level of reliability as judged by degree of interrater agreement. In a host of studies, the scale was found to be valid in distinguishing borderline patients from other types of patients, eating disordered patients from normal controls, and gender disturbed children from normal controls. Another Rorschach scale for assessing primitive defenses was also reviewed and compared.