内疚和羞耻的关系——来自反事实思维的验证

运用情境模拟法从反事实思维的角度探讨内疚与羞耻的关系.并比较了大学生和青少年罪犯反事实思维与内疚和羞耻关系方面的特点.结果表明:(1)研究结果部分支持"内疚事件和羞耻事件"假设,但不支持Lewis提出的"自我和行为"假设,甚至与该假设相反;(2)大学生和青少年罪犯反事实思维与内疚和羞耻的关系具有某些方面的一致性.但也存在着很大的差异.大学生自我导向的反事实思维与内疚感有更为密切的联系,而青少年罪犯行为导向的反事实思维与羞耻感有更为密切的联系.     

反事实思维与内疚和羞耻的关系——以大学生和青少年罪犯为例

运用自我报告法从反事实思维的角度验证内疚与羞耻差异的"自我和行为"假设,探讨大学生和青少年罪犯在反事实思维与内疚和羞耻关系方面的特点。结果表明:1)研究结果不支持Lewis提出的内疚与羞耻差异的"自我和行为"假设,甚至与该假设相反;2)在真实的情境中,大学生和青少年罪犯内疚感和羞耻感与反事实思维的特点具有一致性。     

大学生心理控制源与抑郁倾向的关系:自我效能感的中介效应

目的:探讨大学生心理控制源和自我效能感与抑郁倾向的关系,并检验自我效能感在心理控制源对抑郁倾向关系上的中介效应。方法:随机选取350名大学生接受内控性、有势力的他人及机遇量表、一般自我效能量表和自评抑郁量表测量。结果:(1)相关分析表明,抑郁与心理控制源中的内控性呈显著负相关,与机遇和有势力的他人呈显著正相关,与自我效能感呈显著负相关。内控性和自我效能感存在显著正相关。心理控制源中的内控性和机遇、自我效能感能够显著预测抑郁倾向。(2)中介效应检验表明,自我效能感在内控性对抑郁倾向的作用中起完全中介作用。自我效能感和机遇各自可以独立预测抑郁倾向。结论:自我效能感是内控性预测抑郁倾向的完全中介因素,自我效能感是机遇预测抑郁倾向的部分中介因素。     

心理控制源倾向对责备与辩解的影响:进一步的证据

本研究是对Wang和Anderson研究的继续。149名大学生被试分别对成功和失败情境下的辩解以及交互负有责任情境下的责备进行了评定。结果表明,外控者与内控者相比有着较高的辩解倾向,而丑这一结果不受辩解情境(成功或失败)以及辩解对象(自己或别人)的影响。同时,在交互负有责任的情境下,外控者与内控者相比有较高责备别人的倾向,而对自己以及环境因素的责备则没有表现出差异。文中从方法学及心理动力学角度对这一结果进行了讨论。     

大学生羞耻和内疚差异的对比研究

以 48名北京大学本科生为被试 ,检验羞耻和内疚差异的 3种假设 :研究一同时检验“公开化与私人化”和“个人无能与违背道德”两个假设 ;研究二检验“伤害自我与伤害他人”假设。方法是依次呈现一系列不同的负性情境 (情境事先已按要检验的假设加以控制 ) ,要求被试设想自己亲身经历该情境 ,然后回答体验到的羞耻和内疚的程度及理由。结果表明 :①“公开化与私人化”对羞耻和内疚的影响有显著差异 (p <0 0 5 ) :“有他人在场”可以易化羞耻 ,而内疚感的产生一般不需要“观众”在场。②“违背道德”在引发羞耻和内疚感上基本相等 ,而“个人无能”引起更多的羞耻感 (p <0 0 1)。③“公开化与私人化”和“个人无能与违背道德”的交互作用不显著。④“伤害自我”更多引起羞耻感 (p <0 0 5 ) ,而“伤害他人”更多引起内疚感 (p <0 0 1)。     

大学生乐观、自我和谐与心理控制源的相关研究

目的:探讨大学生的乐观人格、自我和谐与心理控制源的关系。方法:采用生活取向量表修订版(LOT-R)、自我和谐问卷和心理控制源量表对286名大学生进行调查。结果:大学生的乐观人格与自我和谐之间存在显著的正相关;大学生的乐观人格和自我和谐与心理控制源各因子之间呈显著相关;内控性和机遇对乐观具有预测作用,内控性、有势力的他人和机遇对自我和谐有预测作用。结论:大学生的心理控制源能显著地预测乐观和自我和谐。     

心理控制源在时间管理倾向影响唤起性、回避性两类拖延行为中的不同中介作用

拖延行为在大学生中相当普遍。以624名大学生为被试,采用结构方程模型的方法,本研究考察了时间管理倾向、心理控制源对唤起性、回避性2类拖延行为的综合影响。结果发现对于唤起性拖延,心理控制源中的内控型有负向直接影响,而机遇控制型则有正向直接影响;对于回避性拖延,权威控制型有正向直接影响。同时,时间管理倾向负向影响唤起性拖延和回避性拖延,其中对唤起性拖延的影响是通过心理控制源中的内控型和机遇控制型的完全中介作用实现的,以内控型为中介是其主要影响路径;对回避性拖延的影响则是存在着直接影响和以心理控制源中的权威控制型为中介来间接影响两条路径,直接影响是主要影响路径。     

结果的接近性和不同等级分界线对反事实思维的影响

反事实思维是个体对不真实的条件或可能性进行替换的一种思维过程.它是在心理上对已经发生的事件进行否定,然后表征原本可能发生但现实并未发生的心理活动.本文以170名大学生为被试,采用情境模拟技术,研究结果的接近性和不同等级的分界线对反事实思维及满意度的影响.实验一表明,结果接近分界点较结果远离分界点时,被试产生的下行反事实思维要多.当结果的效价为成功时,更易引发反事实思维.实验二发现上行反事实思维随成功的等级变化而呈整体上升趋势,个体对结果的满意度随成绩的增加而上升.     

道德焦虑:一种不可或缺的道德情感

道德焦虑在本质上是一种道德情感.道德焦虑与羞耻感以及内疚感相比是更为基本的道德情感,它所需的条件更少.根据人类在远古时期以及幼年时期的情形,我们发现道德焦虑在产生与维持伦理秩序的过程中有重要作用.当进入伦理世界之后,道德焦虑则在主体行为净化和人格升华等方面具有重要的价值.     

MMCS的心理测量学性能及中国大学生心理控制源的特点

以某民族大学的2006级学生为被试探讨了MMCS量表的心理测量学性能。结果表明MMCS的信度与国外基本相同,验证性因素分析发现在分解出正向和反向陈述效应后MMCS呈现出较好的模型拟合度。对MMCS的8个分量表总分所做的因素分析发现了清晰的因素结构,与理论假设非常符合。这些结果说明中国人也存在内外控的心理结构。但不同的是中国被试中内控和外控并不是相互独立的,也不是对立的两极,而是相关的,且表现出内控强于外控的倾向。通过与症状自评量表SCL-90的相关分析发现外控是不利于心理健康的,过强的内控也不好,而既不过分外控也不过分内控的适度控制方式可能是中国文化背景下最理想的心理控制方式。     

Counterfactuals,emotions, and context

Participants recalled either a negative academic or interpersonal experience, and the relations among counterfactual thinking, negative emotions, and attributions of blame and control were examined. Situational context effects on attribution, counterfactual thinking, and emotion were observed, indicating a greater tendency toward self-focused cognition and emotion in the academic context than in the interpersonal context. Consistent with recent theorising, upward counterfactual thinking was associated with negative emotions of guilt, shame, regret, disappointment, and sadness. However, there was no indication that downward counterfactual thinking regulated emotion as previous literature suggests. Implications for functional and process theories of counterfactual thinking are discussed.     

When feeling bad makes you look good: guilt, shame, and person perception

In two studies, we examined how expressions of guilt and shame affected person perception. In the first study, participants read an autobiographical vignette in which the writer did something wrong and reported feeling either guilt, shame, or no emotion. The participants then rated the writer's motivations, beliefs, and traits, as well as their own feelings toward the writer. The person expressing feelings of guilt or shame was perceived more positively on a number of attributes, including moral motivation and social attunement, than the person who reported feeling no emotion. In the second study, the writer of the vignette reported experiencing (or not experiencing) cognitive and motivational aspects of guilt or shame. Expressing a desire to apologise (guilt) or feelings of worthlessness (private shame) resulted in more positive impressions than did reputational concerns (public shame) or a lack of any of these feelings. Our results indicate that verbal expressions of moral emotions such as guilt and shame influence perception of moral character as well as likeability.     

When feeling bad makes you look good: Guilt,shame, and person perception

In two studies, we examined how expressions of guilt and shame affected person perception. In the first study, participants read an autobiographical vignette in which the writer did something wrong and reported feeling either guilt, shame, or no emotion. The participants then rated the writer's motivations, beliefs, and traits, as well as their own feelings toward the writer. The person expressing feelings of guilt or shame was perceived more positively on a number of attributes, including moral motivation and social attunement, than the person who reported feeling no emotion. In the second study, the writer of the vignette reported experiencing (or not experiencing) cognitive and motivational aspects of guilt or shame. Expressing a desire to apologise (guilt) or feelings of worthlessness (private shame) resulted in more positive impressions than did reputational concerns (public shame) or a lack of any of these feelings. Our results indicate that verbal expressions of moral emotions such as guilt and shame influence perception of moral character as well as likeability.     

情绪调节方式及其发展趋势

本研究探讨了四个年龄阶段12种具体情绪感受频率和四种情绪调节方式(评价忽视、表情抑制、评价重视、表情宣泄)使用频率及其发展趋势.334名初中、高中、大学本科、成年被试填写了本研究的具体情绪量表(DES-IV)和情绪调节方式问卷.结果表明(1)四个年龄阶段在12种具体情绪感受频率的顺序上基本一致,快乐和兴趣较多,内疚和羞愧较多.(2)正情绪调节以重视和宣泄为主,负情绪以忽视和抑制为主.原因调节多于反应调节.(3)成年之后,惊奇、羞愧、厌恶、悲伤、内疚有下降的发展趋势,负情绪的忽视和抑制、正情绪抑制也有增强的发展趋势.(4)情绪和情绪调节存在着一定的性别差异.本文对社会文化因素在发展趋势和性别差异中的可能影响进行了初步讨论.     

What do the TOSCA guilt and shame scales really measure: Affect or action?

Psychologists have long used the Test of Self-Conscious Affect (TOSCA) as an instrument for empirically distinguishing between trait emotions of guilt and shame. Recent assessments of the internal structure of the TOSCA guilt scale suggest that it may not measure the experience of guilt, but rather motivation to make amends for personal wrongdoing. In contrast, TOSCA shame may better assess the tendency to experience negative self-conscious affect. Previous research did not take into account that TOSCA guilt theoretically should only predict emotions in a situation of wrongdoing; we put this idea to the test in two studies. Experimental, but not control, participants received believable feedback that they had shown involuntary prejudice towards a member of a minority group. In both studies TOSCA guilt predicted reparative action after feedback was given, including expressing non-prejudiced views and recommending financial compensation to the minority group. However, TOSCA guilt had no relationship with feelings of guilt or shame after expressing prejudice. In contrast, TOSCA shame was a better predictor of feelings of guilt, shame and other self-critical emotions, but did not predict compensatory action. These findings suggest motivation rather than emotion as a mechanism behind past findings involving TOSCA guilt.     

Group-based guilt and shame in the context of intergroup conflict: The role of beliefs and meta-beliefs about group malleability

Group-based guilt and shame are part of a wide range of moral emotions in intergroup conflicts. These emotions can potentially motivate group members to make compromises in order to promote conflict resolution, and increase support for reparations and apologies following moral transgressions committed by the in-group. Thus, it is important to understand how to induce these emotions and the mechanisms for their effects. In the present paper, we examined the mechanisms underlying group-based guilt and shame in four studies. Across the first three studies, conducted in the context of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, we found that group-based guilt was mostly predicted by individuals’ implicit theories about groups (ITG). Specifically, we found that the more participants believed that groups are malleable, the more they experienced group-based guilt. Group-based shame, however, was found to be dependent upon individuals’ perception of other people’s perceptions about the malleability of groups (i.e., meta-ITG), as the perceived damage to one’s in-group image is a major component in experiencing shame. In Study 4, conducted in the context of gender relations, we differentiated between the two components of shame, that is, moral and image shame. As predicted, while group-based guilt and moral shame showed similar patterns of results, meta-ITG had a moderating effect on the association between ITG and group-based image shame. The theoretical and practical implications of the findings are discussed in relation to promoting intergroup conflict resolution and reconciliation.     

Emotions associated with counterfactual comparisons drive decision-making in Footbridge-type moral dilemmas

Based on the dual-process theory of moral judgment, it has been suggested that in Footbridge-type dilemmas the anticipation of the emotional consequences of causing intentional harm might contribute to the decision of rejecting utilitarian resolutions. However, no empirical data have been reported on the emotions felt by participants after their decisions, and the role played by emotions in Trolley-type dilemmas remains to be determined. The present study investigated the specific emotions engaged both after decision choices and after the generation of the counterfactual scenario in Trolley- and Footbridge-type dilemmas. The results support the idea that in Footbridge-type dilemmas decision-making is driven by the attempt to minimize the aversive emotional state evoked by the decision outcome. A greater increase in emotional intensity was found overall for Footbridge-type than Trolley-type dilemmas after the counterfactual generation following typical (non-utilitarian) choices, with guilt, regret, and shame being the emotions that increased most. Critically, in Footbridge-type dilemmas only, typical choices were predicted by the increase in regret intensity experienced after counterfactual generation.     

Looking into the crystal ball of our emotional lives: emotion regulation and the overestimation of future guilt and shame

In the present study, we examined the impact of emotion regulation on the intensity bias in guilt and shame. Fifty-two undergraduates either forecasted their emotions and emotion regulation following a guilt- and shame-eliciting situation or reported their actual experienced emotions and employed emotion regulation. Results showed a clear intensity bias, that is, forecasters predicted to experience more guilt and shame than experiencers actually experienced. Furthermore, results showed that forecasters predicted to employ less down-regulating emotion regulation (i.e. less acceptance) and more up-regulating emotion regulation (i.e. more rumination) than experiencers actually employed. Moreover, results showed that the intensity differences between forecasted and experienced guilt and shame could be explained (i.e. were mediated) by the differences between forecasted and actually employed emotion regulation (i.e. acceptance and rumination). These findings provide support for the hypothesis that the intensity bias can—at least in part—be explained by the misprediction of future emotion regulation.     

Moral Emotions,Emotion Self-Regulation,Callous-Unemotional Traits,and Problem Behavior in Children of Incarcerated Mothers

Children with incarcerated mothers are at high risk for developing problem behaviors. Fifty children (6–12 years; 62% girls) participated in summer camps, along with adult mentors. Regression analyses of child and adult measures of child’s emotion self-regulation and callous-unemotional traits, and a child measure of moral emotions, showed that poor emotion regulation, along with low levels of guilt and high levels of shame, predicted children’s externalizing behaviors, while only low levels of guilt predicted a unique subset of child characteristics called callous-unemotional traits. Children who experienced healthy guilt for misdeeds were better able to control their behavior. Adults noted the ability of children with callous/unemotional traits to manage and regulate their emotions, while poor emotion regulation was more predictive of the cluster of externalizing problems. Discussion focuses on prevention efforts aimed at teaching emotion self-regulation and the implications of the high levels of callous-unemotional traits in this population of children.     

From Self-awareness to Shame-proneness: Evidence of Causal Sequence Among Women

This article reports an experimental study designed to test the hypothesis that self-awareness plays a causal role in the experience of shame but not guilt. The effects of a self-focus manipulation on shame and guilt proneness were assessed by having male and female participants complete an internal vs. external focus of attention writing task and then complete the Test for Self-conscious Affect. Results indicated that heightened self-focus increased shame proneness but not guilt proneness for women but did not have parallel effects for men. Implications of these results for understanding self-conscious emotions are briefly discussed.