Identifying work preferences among supported workers with severe disabilities: efficiency and accuracy of a preference‐assessment protocol

Despite considerable research on assessing preferences among people with severe disabilities, relatively little investigatory attention has been directed to preferences in supported work situations. We evaluated a protocol for identifying work preferences among adults with severe disabilities in supported jobs. The protocol involved obtaining opinions of support staff regarding most and least preferred tasks of a supported worker, conducting a multi‐task preference assessment and then if necessary, a paired‐task assessment for workers for whom the former assessment did not reveal work preferences. For the 12 participating workers, the multi‐task assessment revealed preferences for 7 of the workers and subsequently, the paired‐task assessment revealed preferences for 4 of the 5 remaining workers. The former assessment required 40% less time than the latter. Staff opinion required much less time to obtain, but accurately identified preferences (based on validation through systematic assessment) only somewhat consistently. Results are discussed regarding guidelines for efficiently identifying supported work preferences, and future research areas are noted for developing more definitive guidelines. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Recovering stimuli from memory: A statistical method for linking discrimination and reproduction responses

Investigations of sensory memory have often relied on discrimination processes: participants judge whether a reference stimulus is identical to a remembered stimulus. Recently, investigators have used response modes in which participants directly reproduce stimuli. Findings using reproduction tasks have suggested new ways of thinking about biases that pervade psychophysics. To allow an assessment of whether results obtained using reproduction responses persevere for discrimination tasks, this paper presents a statistical model that links the two approaches. The model uses the pattern of discrimination judgements to estimate parameters that represent the means and standard deviations that would have occurred under a reproduction task. An analysis of stimuli that have been previously studied using reproduction responses illustrates the method. Simulations investigate bias and efficiency, large‐sample confidence intervals and the performance of likelihood‐ratio tests of the adequacy of special submodels.     

The Importance of the Task in Analyzing Expert Judgment

The accuracy of judgmental forecasts of temperature and precipitation was analyzed. In contrast to the findings of many studies of expert judgment and forecasting, forecasts were highly accurate and forecaster agreement was high. Human forecasters performed better than an operational forecasting model and about the same as a linear regression model. Differences between temperature and precipitation forecasts could be predicted from differences between the tasks. In general, differences between tasks were much greater than differences between forecasters. Task predictability was an excellent indicator of forecast accuracy. The characteristics of the environment for forecasting temperature and precipitation that contribute to accuracy include high-quality information and the availability of "guidance" based on a computer model. It is concluded that an understanding of the properties of the task is essential for understanding the accuracy of expert judgment.     

Picture-word differences in decision latency: An analysis of single and dual memory models

Semantic and perceptual size decision times for pictorial and verbal material were analyzed in the context of a unitary memory model and several dual memory models. Experiment 1 involved a same-different categorical judgment task. The results showed that picture-picture response latencies were 185 msec faster than the corresponding word-word latencies, and word-picture and picture-word latencies equaled the mean of these two extremes. Similarity of subcategory for “same” judgments led to faster decision latency for all presentation conditions. Additionally, a linear relationship was found between picture-picture and word-word latencies for individual item pairs. Experiment 2 involved a comparison of pictures and words across a. categorical judgment and a size judgment task. Pictures produced faster decision latencies in both tasks, and the latency diflerence between pictures and words was comparable across tasks. These data fit the predictions of a unitary memory model. Several variants of a dual memory model are rejected and those which fit the data require assumptions about storage and/or transfer time values which result in a functional regression to the unitary memory model.     

Children's Understanding of Second‐Order False Belief: Comparisons of Content and Method of Assessment

This research examined children's performance on second‐order false belief tasks as a function of the content area for the belief and the method of assessing understanding. A total of 70 kindergarten and first‐grade children responded to four second‐order stories. On two stories, the task was to judge a belief about a belief, and on two, the task was to judge a belief about an emotion. On one trial within each group, the task was to predict the target's belief, and on one trial, the task was to explain the belief. Older children outperformed younger children on the prediction measure. Differences as a function of content area and method of assessment were limited; when they did occur, performance was generally better with belief than with emotion as the target, and better with prediction than with explanation as the response criterion. Finally, there was no relation between number of siblings and performance.     

The role of generation in recognition

In contrast to the widely accepted opinion, a negatively accelerated RT function was obtained with varied mapping of stimuli to responses in Sternberg's (1966) recognition task when the task was designed to reduce proactive inhibition. These results are similar to the results obtained in the distractor task. Those aspects of the distractor task that proactively inhibit recall of the trigram are also necessary to produce a linear RT function in the recognition task. Hence, the varied-set procedure only results in a linear RT function when the memory sets on successive trials contain similar items, but not when successive trials contain different kinds of items, e.g., digits versus letters. Also, once subjects have been trained on the fixed-set procedure to produce a negatively accelerated RT function, the training transfers completely and immediately to entirely new sets of targets and distractors. The results of both tasks, as well as other retrieval tasks, can be explained by a model containing a single comparison process and an optional serial generation process which is invoked to increase the discriminability of the memory set from distractors.     

内隐绩效模型对管理决策的影响作用研究

本文在以往绩效模型和内隐绩效模型的研究基础上,运用实验模拟方法,研究了内隐绩效模型对管理决策的影响作用,结果发现：在不同决策任务条件下,内隐绩效模型存在显著差异．并随着决策任务变化而变化;内隐绩效模型影响决策者的决策偏差,周边绩效一定程度上对任务绩效起补偿作用。     

Metacognitive sensitivity of subjective reports of decisional confidence and visual experience

Previous studies provided contradicting results regarding metacognitive sensitivity estimated from subjective reports of confidence in comparison to subjective reports of visual experience. We investigated whether this effect of content of subjective reports is influenced by the statistical method to quantify metacognitive sensitivity. Comparing logistic regression and meta-d in a masked orientation task, a masked shape task, and a random-dot motion task, we observed metacognitive sensitivity of reports regarding decisional confidence was greater than of reports about visual experience irrespective of mathematical procedures. However, the relationship between subjective reports and the logistic transform of accuracy was often not linear, implying that logistic regression is not a consistent measure of metacognitive sensitivity. We argue that a science of consciousness would benefit from the assessment of both visual experience and decisional confidence, and recommend meta-d as measure of metacognitive sensitivity for future studies.     

数学学习困难初中生的N-back任务表现特征

目的：分析数学学习困难初中生与学习优秀初中生的核心认知过程机制差异。方法：采用N-back任务作为测查工作记忆能力的指标,分析初中42名数困生和53名数优生的表现差异。结果：两组学生在0-back任务中无显著差异,在1-back和2-back任务中的差异逐渐增大。回归分析表明2-back和1-back任务对数学成绩有显著影响。结论：1）随着认知负荷增高,数困生和数优生的表现差距增大。数学学习困难的核心认知缺损是工作记忆能力而非简单认知加工过程。2）N-back任务能有效预测数学学习成绩。     

Assessing preferred work among adults with autism beginning supported jobs: identification of constant and alternating task preferences

We evaluated a multiple‐stimulus assessment for identifying work preferences among adults with autism prior to beginning supported jobs. Initially, a prework assessment focused on identifying preferences across different work tasks. Eight preference assessments involving office‐cleaning tasks were conducted with five supported workers. Results of five assessments involving three individuals indicated respective workers had a strong preference for one work task. On three assessments involving three workers and different cleaning tasks, weak preferences for given tasks were identified. Next, choices between more‐ and less‐preferred tasks were provided during the daily job routine. Workers who had a strong preference on the prework assessment consistently chose the previously assessed, more preferred task during the daily job. Workers who had a weak preference always chose the more preferred task on the first choice of the work day, and then alternated between tasks on 71% of subsequent choice opportunities. Results appear to support the utility of the prework, multiple‐stimulus assessment for predicting preferred tasks among supported workers with autism when the assessment identifies strong preferences. Results also offer some support for predicting a preference to alternate tasks when the assessment identifies weak preferences for respective work tasks. Implications of the results are discussed in terms of developing work routines within community jobs for adults with autism that are more in accordance with their work preferences than traditional job placement practices. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Who uses base rates andP(D/∼H)? An analysis of individual differences

In two experiments, involving over 900 subjects, we examined the cognitive correlates of the tendency to viewP(D/～H) and base rate information as relevant to probability assessment. We found that individuals who viewedP(D/～H) as relevant in a selection task and who used it to make the proper Bayesian adjustment in a probability assessment task scored higher on tests of cognitive ability and were better deductive and inductive reasoners. They were less biased by prior beliefs and more datadriven on a covariation assessment task. In contrast, individuals who thought that base rates were relevant did not display better reasoning skill or higher cognitive ability. Our results parallel disputes about the normative status of various components of the Bayesian formula in interesting ways. It is argued that patterns of covariance among reasoning tasks may have implications for inferences about what individuals are trying to optimize in a rational analysis (J. R. Anderson, 1990, 1991).     

Attention during visual secondary tasks in driving: Adaptation to the demands of the driving task

Visual attention in driving with visual secondary task is compared for two visual secondary tasks. N = 40 subjects completed a 1 h test drive in a motion-base driving simulator. During the drive, participants either solved an externally paced, highly demanding visual task or a self paced menu system task. The secondary tasks were offered in defined critical and non-critical driving situations. Eye movement behavior was analyzed and compared for both tasks. Before starting the secondary tasks, eye movement behavior shows a smaller standard deviation of gaze as well as longer fixation durations for both tasks. The comparison between the two tasks indicates that drivers use the possibilities the self paced task offers: during the secondary task, they monitor the driving scene with longer fixations and show a greater standard deviation of gaze position. Furthermore, independently of the type of secondary task, drivers adapt their eye movement behavior to the demands of the situation. In critical driving situations they direct a larger proportion of glance time to the driving task. Last, the relation between glance behavior and collisions is analyzed. Results indicate that collisions go together with an inadequate distribution of attention during distraction. The results are interpreted regarding the attentional processes involved in driving with visual secondary tasks. Based on the similarities and differences between the two secondary tasks, a cognitive approach is developed which assumes that the control of attention during distraction is based on a mental situational model of the driving situation.     

Age and forgetfulness: perceivers' impressions of targets' capability.

In a person perception paradigm, 72 young and 72 old adult Ss listened to tape recordings of a nonforgetful, moderately forgetful, or highly forgetful female target person being interviewed for a volunteer job. Ss then rated their opinion of the target's memory and how likely they would be to assign the target to easy and difficult tasks. Overall, Ss gave higher memory opinion ratings to old than to young targets. As expected, they were more likely to assign tasks to nonforgetful than to forgetful targets. However, they were more egalitarian than was hypothesized in their task assignment ratings for forgetful young versus forgetful old targets.     

Studying judgement: General issues

The previous papers raise a number of issues. How should we develop task typologies both to separate judgement from related cognitive tasks and to classify tasks within the judgement domain? Are there grounds for selecting between models of judgement when empirical tests fail to do so? What techniques can be used to find out more about the cognitive processes underlying judgement behaviour? I discuss these issues and give a brief assessment of the current state of play in this rapidly changing area.     

Measuring the ability of transitive reasoning,using product and strategy information

Cognitive theories disagree about the processes and the number of abilities involved in transitive reasoning. This led to controversies about the influence of task characteristics on individuals' performance and the development of transitive reasoning. In this study, a computer test was constructed containing 16 transitive reasoning tasks having different characteristics with respect to presentation form, task format, and task content. Both product and strategy information were analyzed to measure the performance of 6- to 13-year-old children. Three methods (MSP, DETECT, and Improved DIMTEST) were used to determine the number of abilities involved and to test the assumptions imposed on the data by item response models. Nonparametric IRT models were used to construct a scale for transitive reasoning. Multiple regression was used to determine the influence of task characteristics on the difficulty level of the tasks. It was concluded that: (1) the qualitatively distinct abilities predicted by Piaget's theory could not be distinguished by means of different dimensions in the data structure; (2) transitive reasoning could be described by one ability, and some task characteristics influenced the difficulty of a task; and (3) strategy information provided a stronger scale than product information.     

基于速度与准确率权衡的心理测量学模型及应用

在大规模被试评价中,任务完成的准确率一直是评价的主要指标。然而,在各种任务情景中,反映执行者素质的指标除了结果的正确性之外,决策过程的时效性同样是极其重要的。因此,开发一个适合大规模评价情景,同时考虑速度与准确率权衡的模型,探索被试作答准确率与速度间的关系将具有重要的价值。基于认知心理学实验中的速度与准确率研究,构建一个基于速度与准确率权衡的心理测量学模型。新模型参数能非常稳定而又精确地被估计,同时模型中的变量及其关系也能够很好地得到实测数据的支持。     

Similarity on the rebound: inhibition of similarity assessment leads to an ironic postsuppressional rebound

A widely held but rarely tested assumption among cognitive scientists is that different cognitive tasks may rely upon a single basic cognitive process. Using an established methodology to examine the suppression and subsequent rebound of mental operations, the present research indicates that suppressing use of similarity in one domain results in the subsequent rebound of similarity assessment in a different domain, suggesting that both domains rely on the same underlying cognitive process. In two studies, we demonstrate that leading people to suppress natural similarity assessment in one task produces increased reliance on similarity in subsequent, different, and apparently unrelated tasks. In Experiment 1, participants led to suppress similarity in a concentration task subsequently made more errors in a false-memory paradigm than did control participants. In Experiment 2, participants suppressing similarity in a categorization task made more false-memory errors and perceived more similarity between word pairs than participants who did not suppress. The findings suggest that the cognitive process of similarity assessment may be a domain-general process, such that it is widespread across a number of different mental tasks.     

Similarity on the rebound: Inhibition of similarity assessment leads to an ironic postsuppressional rebound

A widely held but rarely tested assumption among cognitive scientists is that different cognitive tasks may rely upon a single basic cognitive process. Using an established methodology to examine the suppression and subsequent rebound of mental operations, the present research indicates that suppressing use of similarity in one domain results in the subsequent rebound of similarity assessment in a different domain, suggesting that both domains rely on the same underlying cognitive process. In two studies, we demonstrate that leading people to suppress natural similarity assessment in one task produces increased reliance on similarity in subsequent, different, and apparently unrelated tasks. In Experiment 1, participants led to suppress similarity in a concentration task subsequently made more errors in a false-memory paradigm than did control participants. In Experiment 2, participants suppressing similarity in a categorization task made more false-memory errors and perceived more similarity between word pairs than participants who did not suppress. The findings suggest that the cognitive process of similarity assessment may be a domain-general process, such that it is widespread across a number of different mental tasks.     

A method for obtaining psychophysical estimates of movement costs

Although researchers generally accept the proposition that movement costs are taken into account in the planning of voluntary movements, there is no established psychophysical method for estimating such costs. The authors tested and introduce a possible method. Participants were given every possible pair of tasks from a set of tasks that varied along one or more dimensions. In each trial, they indicated which task was easier to perform. The authors used participants' probability of preferring any given task over others to estimate the judged relative cost (JRC) of that task, and they used the JRCs of all the tasks to quantify the relation between task preference and task properties. The method was applied in 3 experiments in which university students (Experiment 1, N = 20; Experiment 2, N = 40; Experiment 3, N = 20) chose which spatial target to move to in carrying an object from one position to another. The data were consistent with the hypothesis that the JRC of moving an object increases with the degree to which the object must be translated and rotated. The simplicity of the method encourages its application to a wide range of questions about motor behavior.     

Executive control of cognitive processes in task switching

In 4 experiments, participants alternated between different tasks or performed the same task repeatedly. The tasks for 2 of the experiments required responding to geometric objects in terms of alternative classification rules, and the tasks for the other 2 experiments required solving arithmetic problems in terms of alternative numerical operations. Performance was measured as a function of whether the tasks were familiar or unfamiliar, the rules were simple or complex, and visual cues were present or absent about which tasks should be performed. Task alternation yielded switching-time costs that increased with rule complexity but decreased with task cuing. These factor effects were additive, supporting a model of executive control that has goal-shifting and rule-activation stages for task switching. It appears that rule activation takes more time for switching from familiar to unfamiliar tasks than for switching in the opposite direction.