Irrational beliefs and unconditional self-acceptance. I. Correlational evidence linking two key features of REBT

In a study with 102 non-clinical adults, relationships between measures of irrational beliefs, unconditional self-acceptance, self-esteem and the Big-5 personality dimensions were investigated. As expected, unconditional self-acceptance was highly correlated with self-esteem. In line with key tenets of REBT, individuals who scored highly on unconditional self-acceptance scored low on irrational beliefs even after self-esteem had been partialled out. Unconditional self-acceptance was found to be significantly (negatively) correlated with Neuroticism but not with other Big-5 personality dimensions. Irrational beliefs were found to correlate positively with Neuroticism and negatively with Openness. Factor analysis of the unconditional self-acceptance scale did not show a simple one-dimensional structure. A revised version of the scale comprising those items that did not load on a self-esteem factor produced a purer measure of unconditional self-acceptance that did not correlate significantly with self-esteem. The findings have implications for investigating unconditional self-acceptance in studies of therapeutic outcome.     

Mindfulness,Self-Esteem,and Unconditional Self-Acceptance

Ellis (Ellis, A. (1996), Psychotherapy, 22(1), 149–151) has been a longstanding critic of the concept of self-esteem and has offered the notion of unconditional self-acceptance as an alternative. Other researchers have suggested that cultivating mindfulness––attention directed towards one’s immediate experiences with an attitude of non-judgment––also offers a healthier alternative to self-esteem (Ryan, R. M., & Brown, K. W. (2003) Psychological Inquiry, 14(1), 71–76). This study examined the relationship between mindfulness, self-esteem, and unconditional self-acceptance. A sample of 167 university students completed two measures of everyday mindfulness, and measures of self-esteem and unconditional self-acceptance. Positive correlations were found between mindfulness, self-esteem, and unconditional self-acceptance. Mindfulness skills may offer a means to cultivate unconditional self-acceptance and to shift from an emphasis on self-esteem as a measure of worth. This paper was based on data collected for the first author's Master's project.     

FEMINISM AS A CORRELATE OF SELF-ESTEEM, SELF-ACCEPTANCE, AND SOCIAL SUPPORT AMONG LESBIANS

In this study it was hypothesized that, among lesbians, agreement with feminist ideology and participation in feminist activities would correlate positively with self-esteem, self-acceptance, and social support. Demographic variables were also examined as correlates. Respondents were contacted through 11 lesbian, gay, and feminist organizations and establishments and asked to complete a research questionnaire. Onehundred-twenty-three usable questionnaires were returned. Age and current involvement in a lesbian relationship were significantly related to self-esteem, self-acceptance, and social support. Participation in feminist activities also correlated with self-acceptance. The results give tentative, but important, information useful in understanding the correlates of self-esteem and support among lesbians.     

Unconditional Self-Acceptance and Psychological Health

Low self-esteem is usually considered unhealthy, but according to rational-emotive behavior therapy, any level of self-esteem reflects a dysfunctional habit of globally evaluating one's worth; it would be preferable to accept oneself unconditionally. This hypothesis was tested by examining several correlates of scores on a novel questionnaire measure of unconditional self-acceptance (USA). In a nonclinical adult sample, statistically controlling for self-esteem, USA was inversely correlated with anxiety symptoms and with narcissism, positively correlated with state mood after imaginal exposure to negative events. Other predicted associations of USA (with depression, happiness, and self-deception) either were not evident or became nonsignificant when self-esteem was taken into account. Discussion centered on the conceptual and operational distinctions between self-esteem and self-acceptance.     

Masculinity,Femininity, and Hispanic Professional Women's Self-Esteem and Self-Acceptance

The literature suggests that whereas women experience unique challenges with self-esteem, Hispanic professional women experience an additional challenge of balancing majority culture values with a more family-oriented ethnic identity. This study investigated differences in self-esteem, self-acceptance, masculinity, femininity, and locus of control among Hispanic professional women, non-Hispanic professionals, scientists, college students, clients, and victims of domestic violence. Masculinity scores were significantly higher for Hispanic professional women, and self-acceptance scores were significantly lower than for other women professionals.     

Masculinity, femininity, and women scientists' self-esteem and self-acceptance

The literature suggests women scientists are a unique population. The present study investigated differences in self-esteem, self-acceptance, masculinity and femininity among several sample populations of women, including scientists (n = 62), professionals (other than scientists) (n = 89), college students (n = 83), clients (n = 52), and victims of domestic violence (n = 57). The Personal Orientation Inventory (Shostrom, 1974) and Bem Sex Role Inventory (Bem, 1974) were administered to subjects, together with a demographic data sheet. An ANOVA was used to investigate differences between women scientists and other groups of women, and correlations were used to examine the relationship of masculinity and femininity with self-esteem and self-acceptance. Masculinity was found to correlate with self-esteem for all but the student group and with self-acceptance for all but the student and scientist group. Self-acceptance scores were significantly lower for women scientists than for professional and student groups, and femininity scores were significantly lower for scientists than for all other groups of women.     

The Plausibility of a New Self: Self-Esteem From a Sociology of Knowledge Perspective

The significance of new reference groups for the maintenance of self-esteem is explored from the standpoint of Peter Berger's sociology of knowledge. Berger's perspective is used to argue that even extremely powerful experiences of self-acceptance are in desperate need of an ongoing “plausibility structure” to reinforce a new sense of self. Implications of this perspective are described for mental health professionals who attempt to help individuals maintain self-esteem.     

Using religious paradox to facilitate life review groups with shame-driven older adults

This article explains how pastoral counselors who lead life review groups with shame-driven older members can use religious paradox as a model for change. The article first elaborates upon the challenge to self-acceptance that poor self-esteem poses for older adults engaged in life review. It then shows how paradoxes enhance self-acceptance by drawing reviewers to a more holistic understanding of their past and evoking insights about the meaning of their personal history. It presents a model of group process in which members individually select religious paradoxes and relate such paradoxes to their life review. It concludes with examples of how three participants used religious paradoxes to own the life review instead of feeling threatened by it.     

The Case Against Self-Esteem: Alternative Philosophies Toward Self That Would Raise the Probability of Pleasurable and Productive Living

This article discusses two major aspects of the self-esteem movement in public education and psychotherapy to make a strong case that trying to raise or enhance self-esteem in students (as a preventive) or clients (as a treatment) is an unproductive palliative/diversionary intervention that does not lead to emotional health or long-term enjoyment in one's existence. In order to build a case against self-esteem, the two major aspects that will be examined are the following:1.A clear and precise definition of the self-esteem construct, based on anexhaustive meta-analysis of self-esteem theory/literature in order to evaluateits core philosophical structure.2.A summary of the research data on self-esteem enhancement, which shows there is no scientific evidence to support even a correlation between higher self-esteem and mental health, productive behaviors, and pleasure inliving.This article proposes that a philosophy of unconditional self-acceptance (USA), a core construct found in many of the Eastern and Western traditions dealing with productive and pleasurable living, is a desirable philosophy for increasing long-term happiness in one's existence.     

Alienation Among the Visually Impaired: Some Important Predictors

We evaluated the effectiveness of a nondiet approach designed to reduce restrained eating behaviors and improve self-acceptance and self-esteem. This approach also encourages participants to address eating and exercise behavior separately. Subjects were Conoco employees who participated in the Wellness Department's Eat For L.I.F.E. (Long-term change; Image of self; Fun; Enjoyment of eating) program and completed pre-participation and 3-year follow-up questionnaires (N = 79). Pre- and postsurvey data were used to assess participants eating behavior, dieting behavior, self-acceptance, self-esteem, level of physical activity, and demographic information. Mastery of the internally directed eating style was assessed during the program at 3 months, at the conclusion of the 6-month program, and at the 3-year follow-up. Analysis of variance indicated that Eat For L.I.F.E. participants were able to significantly decrease their restrained eating behavior and increase self-acceptance, self-esteem, and level of physical activity. Participants also were able to adopt many aspects of the nonrestrained, internally directed eating style and decrease their frequency of weighing-in behavior. These results indicate that strategies fostering internally directed eating behaviors may be more centrally related to an individual's well-being than programs supporting externally directed eating behaviors.     

藏族大学生自我意识与价值观初探

通过对411名藏族大学生的自我意识结构,价值观类型进行问卷调查 ,结果显示藏族大学生有较强的自尊心和独立意识,表现出较好的自我接纳,具有积极的价值观倾向;文、理科不同的教育内容、教育方法对藏族大学生自我意识和价值观的形成产生不同的影响;男女大学生自我意识的发展存在性别差异。     

Self-esteem among lesbian,gay, bisexual and same-sex-attracted Mormons and ex-Mormons

Lesbian, gay, bisexual and same-sex-attracted (LGB/SSA) individuals in conservative religions often experience stigma, shame, and psychological distress in reconciling their religious and sexual identities, yet religion can also provide existential comfort and social support. We investigated relationships among self-esteem, participation in the Mormon Church, and sexual identity acceptance among 348 LGB/SSA Mormons and ex-Mormons in 2013–2014 and found that the two groups reported similar self-esteem. By testing plausible mediators (family support, gay/SSA identity acceptance, and agreement with Mormon Church policy prohibiting same-sex behaviour) through a path model, results revealed different pathways to self-esteem. Practicing LGB/SSA Mormons reported higher family support and lower gay/SSA identity acceptance than ex-Mormons, while those self-identifying as SSA but not gay reported lower gay/SSA identity acceptance. We suggest that religiously active Mormons demonstrate low self-acceptance of their gay/SSA identity while ex-Mormons suffer loss of familial and social support, resulting in equal self-esteem across church status groups.     

Self-Discrepancy Across the Life Span

This study examined the developmental trajectory of self-discrepancies in adulthood and the role of self-discrepancies in the maintenance of psychological well-being. One hundred fourteen adults completed mailed surveys that assessed physical health, actual self and ideal self, depression, anxiety, self-esteem, and self-discrepancy. Examination of age differences in actual self and ideal self assessments showed that ideal self ratings converged with actual self ratings for older adults but were significantly different for young and middle-aged adults, which indicated a decline in self-discrepancy with age. Mean scores on the self-discrepancy scale indicated less self-discrepancy in old age, but the differences were not significant. Self-discrepancy mediated the effects of health problems on depression, anxiety, self-esteem, environmental mastery, and self-acceptance. Results support life-span theory suggesting that self-discrepancy declines in old age and that this decline is positively related to psychological well-being.     

Gay Identification and Psychological Health in HIV-Positive and HIV-Negative Gay Men1

This paper reports a study of HIV-positive and HIV-negative gay men focusing on comparisons between the HIV-positive and HIV-negative on gay identification, the interrelationships among gay identification variables, and the psychological correlates of gay identification. We hypothesized that better psychological health would be related to gay self-acceptance, participating in gay organizations and groups, socializing with other gay men, and parental disclosure and acceptance of being gay. The sample was composed of 169 gay men, including 98 asymptomatic HIV-positive and 71 HIV-negative men. The findings are largely consistent with our hypotheses. A strong and consistent relationship of the gay identification measures with psychological variables was observed, explaining up to one fifth of the variance in current level of mood and self-esteem. Among the HIV-positive subjects, participating in gay organizations and groups and having parents who accepted their sexual orientation were important correlates of psychological adaptation. Despite this, 36% of subjects had parents who disapproved of their sexual orientation, and 69% of HIV-positive subjects were not in any gay organizations or groups. Among the HIV-negative subjects, gay self-acceptance and disclosing their sexual orientation to parents were associated with better psychological adjustment. These results suggest that the psychological health and outlook of gay men may be influenced by gay self-acceptance, participation in gay groups, and parental disclosure and acceptance of their children's sexual orientation.     

Active and passive maladaptive behaviour patterns mediate the relationship between contingent self-esteem and health

People with an impoverished basic self-acceptance are compelled to seek external reassurances of their own value and to cope with the threats and challenges of social life by different compensatory behaviours. The present study examines the links between competence based self-esteem (CBSE) and relation based self-esteem (RBSE) (Johnson &; Blom, 2007), active and passive maladaptive socio-behavioural styles and health status. The active style was indicated by hostile perfectionistic strivings whereas the passive style was indicated by avoidance and emotion suppression. In a cross-sectional design 284 Swedish adults completed personality and health questionnaires. The results showed that CBSE is a stronger predictor of poor physical health than RBSE and that the relation is primarily mediated by an active “toxic” style, whereas the role of RBSE for health appears purely indirect, mediated by a passive repressive style. An additional finding was that the two types of contingent SE and socio-behavioural styles were associated with different kinds of health problems.     

Computer game associating self-concept to images of acceptance can reduce adolescents' aggressiveness in response to social rejection

The experience of social rejection can lead to an aggressive response. However, the ability to maintain a sense of social connection may reduce the likelihood of this type of response. We tested a computer-based intervention designed to use simple learning principles to boost the sense of social connection and acceptance. Adolescents aged 9–15 (n=138) first completed a conditioning game on computer that repeatedly paired their own name with images of social acceptance (versus a control condition with no systematic pairing), and subsequently reported how aggressively they would behave in response to being rejected by a peer. Those completing the self-acceptance conditioning (particularly those low in self-esteem) reported less aggressive feelings and intentions.     

OVERCOMING INTERNALISED PHOBIA AMONG BUDDHIST SEXUAL MINORITIES THROUGH MINDFULNESS

ABSTRACT

When heterosexuality dominates sexual culture, sexual minorities are marginalised, yielding minority stress and internalised phobia which devastate psychological well-being and raise suicide risks. A growing trend in using mindfulness-related interventions in health care shows positive signs, but there is a paucity of research on mindfulness for sexual minorities. This qualitative research, through interpretative phenomenological analysis, looks into how Buddhist sexual minorities (from various countries) interpret mindfulness from which their increased self-awareness, self-esteem and self-acceptance become prominent intrinsic resources, resulting in enhanced mental health and quality of life. Such an exploratory study extends the horizon of health care benefits for helping professionals and sexual minorities with alternative views in overcoming external and internalised phobia.     

Believing in one’s equal rights: Self-respect as a predictor of assertiveness

In the present research self-respect is defined as a person’s ability to see the self as someone who has the same basic rights and dignity as others. Self-respect fills a gap in previous theorizing on the self because unlike other self-concepts it can be linked to assertiveness and claim making. Self-respect was empirically distinguished from self-competence and self-confidence (Study 1) as well as from psychological entitlement, self-esteem and self-acceptance (Study 2). Self-respect predicted assertive responses above and beyond these other self-scales in two correlational studies (Studies 1 and 3) and one experiment (Study 2). As predicted, self-respect was not related to aggressive responses, but psychological entitlement was (Studies 2 and 3). Implications for future research are discussed.     

The Relationship of a Measure of Frustration Intolerance with Emotional Dysfunction in a Student Sample

This study extended earlier research (Harrington in Cong Ther Res 30:699–709, 2006) on the relationship of the multidimensional Frustration Discomfort Scale (FDS) with measures of depressed mood, anxiety and anger, independent of self-esteem. The study employed a non-clinical student sample (N = 323) and measures of both state and trait anger and anxiety. In addition, the Unconditional Self-Acceptance Questionnaire (USAQ) was also used to specifically assess REBT self-acceptance beliefs regarding self-worth, as well as a measure of self-esteem. A Serbian version of the FDS was developed for use in the study. Consistent with the earlier research, significant predictive relationships were found, whilst controlling for self-worth, between entitlement and anger, emotional intolerance and anxiety, and discomfort intolerance with depressed mood. Emotional intolerance also proved to be a significant positive predictor of depression, whilst achievement frustration had a negative relationship with depression. Overall, the FDS dimensions had a weaker relationship with emotional states than traits. The results are discussed in regard to the relationship between FDS dimensions and dysfunctional emotions in a non-clinical sample.     

Irrational Beliefs and Unconditional Self-Acceptance. II. Experimental Evidence for a Causal Link between Two Key Features of REBT

In a test of two key features of REBT, causal relationships between irrational beliefs and unconditional self-acceptance were experimentally investigated in a sample of 106 non-clinical participants using a priming technique. Priming participants with statements of irrational belief resulted in a decrease in unconditional self-acceptance whereas priming participants with statements of rational belief resulted in an increase in unconditional self-acceptance. In contrast, priming participants with statements about unconditional self-acceptance did not result in an increase in rational thinking and priming participants with statements about conditional self-acceptance did not result in an increase in irrational thinking. The present study is the first to provide evidence of a causal link between rational/irrational thinking and unconditional/conditional self-acceptance. The findings have important implications for the core hypothesis of REBT and underscore the advantages of experimental over correlational studies in theory-testing.