社会比较和社会评价的背景效应——来自联合评估视角的启示

决策领域存在一个经典的联合评估的偏好反转现象(又称评估模式效应),其解释力最强的广义可评估性理论(general evaluability theory, GET)强调了评估模式(即背景信息是否存在)的作用。社会认知领域也存在社会比较和社会评价的背景效应,其著名的包含排除模型(Inclusion/Exclusion Model, IEM)也强调背景信息的作用,尤其是目标-背景相似性的作用。因此,背景效应可以类比于评估模式效应,也可以理解为一种“偏好”(上行同化和下行对比)及其“反转”(上行对比和下行同化)现象。基于从联合评估这一新的视角对背景效应进行的解释和拓展,未来研究应该关注背景效应的测量标准、影响因素之间的交互作用、跨维度作用及其实践应用等方面,以促进对背景效应的深化理解和两个领域的理论融合和实践结合。     

Go/no-go任务中的西蒙效应现象

西蒙效应是指被试在做按键反应时,即使刺激位置和反应位置与任务无关,但刺激位置和反应位置出现在同侧比出现在不同侧时反应更快更准确的现象。西蒙效应的反转就是对在不一侧的反应反而快于同一侧的反应。研究发现,在执行西蒙任务之前练习一个不同侧的空间联结,西蒙效应就会消失,甚至发生了西蒙效应的反转现象。之后的研究发现,go/no-go相容性任务中也能调制出来西蒙效应,进一步讨论西蒙效应的理论基础。西蒙效应在人类生活中的应用。     

面孔和汉字双关图的反转效应

面孔认知的反转效应已经得到了很多研究的证实.本研究使用结构信息改变的面孔、汉字和双关图作为实验材料.被试在经过面孔或者汉字的启动任务之后,可以将双关图知觉为面孔或者汉字.结果显示:在对面孔的相对辨认情景中,被试对反转面孔的反应时间显著长于正立面孔,存在反转效应.在对汉字的相对辨认情景中,正立和反转汉字的反应时间没有显著差异.这一结果表明反转效应不仅和结构信息有关,面孔专家化系统自上而下的激活对面孔反转效应起到重要的作用.     

认知负荷视角下的知识反转效应

知识反转效应研究始于20世纪90年代中期, 在认知负荷的框架下对学习者先备知识与教学方法有效性之间的交互作用进行研究, 其研究范式起源于能力倾向与教学处置交互作用模型。认知负荷理论认为知识反转效应的产生是由于高先备知识者接受冗余教学而产生了额外的认知负荷, 动机理论却认为, 高先备知识者由于冗余的认知加工而产生的负荷可能是一种动机资源负荷。在优化外在认知负荷与相关认知负荷的教学设计中发现了大量知识反转效应的实验证据, 其教学的启示意义在于需要随着学习者领域知识的不断变化适宜性地调整教学方法。未来需要在完善研究方法、拓展研究领域的基础上, 整合研究成果以建立效应发生与发展的理论模型。     

人脸特征信息反转效应的实验研究

结构信息和特征信息的研究是近年来人脸认知的热点,特征信息是否存在反转效应不同的理论对此有不同的看法。通过对平均人脸特征信息阈限的研究,发现:平均人脸特征信息的阈限具有明显的反转效应;特征信息的识别难度是决定特征信息的识别是否出现反转效应的重要因素。研究支持整体假设,认为成人是将人脸作为一个整体进行认知的。     

国外关于Simon效应及其反转现象的研究述评

刺激-反应相容性是心理学的一个重要研究领域,Simon效应是一种典型的空间刺激-反应相容性现象.本文结合实证研究回顾了近年来国外关于此现象的研究,阐释了Simon效应的传统解释及其反转现象的逻辑再编码及显示-控制排列对应性假说等观点,分析了关于Simon效应的发生阶段及其本质问题的某些争论.最后尝试从空间注意以及电生理等角度来揭示此现象的作用机制.     

Simon效应及其反转现象作用机制的研究

研究运用任务干扰的实验范式,试图从探讨刺激出现的空间位置与反应效果之间的关系来推测Simon效应及其反转现象的作用机制。结果表明:(1)当相关刺激-反应匹配不相容时,颜色刺激在左、右位置呈现,当明显标记反应键时,出现Simon效应的反转。(2)当手指遮住反应键的标记时,没有反转。(3)当颜色刺激在中央位置,声音在左、右耳发生时,没有反转。说明显示-控制排列对应性是产生Simon效应反转的最重要因素,逻辑再编码只起到次要的作用。     

权力感对风险决策框架效应的影响

框架效应是指由于对事物描述方式的改变而引起决策者偏好反转的现象。以权力的接近-抑制理论以及模糊痕迹理论为基础,研究探索了权力感对风险决策框架效应的影响及其发生机制。实验一通过回忆法对170名学生被试进行权力操纵,综合运用四种类型的决策情境,研究考察了权力感与框架效应的关系。结果发现,高权力组被试的框架效应显著,低权力组被试者的框架效应不显著。实验二探讨权力感与框架效应的内在机制。结果发现,信息加工深度中介权力感与框架效应之间的关系     

时序知觉重复启动效应的作用机制

先前研究发现,时序判断任务在启动的靶刺激先出现时出现了重复启动效应的反转,这是以往的理论所不能单独解释的。通过两个实验对我们提出的双加工表征匹配调节假说加以实证检验,实验结果支持了该假说。因此,双加工表征匹配调节假说能较完整地综合解释时序知觉重复启动效应的作用机制     

评价分类任务中情绪启动效应的若干定理*

评价分类任务中的情绪启动效应有很多现象,如比例效应、反转效应、词频效应。到目前为止,任何一个启动模型均无法解释所有的情绪启动现象,表明现有的模型均有理论不足。为此提出了四条定理,实验一证实了启靶一致RT(一致性期待时)<启靶不一致RT(不一致性期待时)<启靶一致RT(不一致性期待时);实验二证实了“启—靶”反应从快到慢依次是:N(负)—N、P(正)—N、N—P、P—P;实验三证实了在评价分类任务中准确性判断与速度判断出现了实验性分离。使用这些定理可以解释所有的评价分类任务中的情绪启动现象。     

EEG gamma-band response during the perception of Necker cube reversals

In two former studies our research group reported frontal gamma-band enhancement during multistable visual perception and reversal rate dependent differences in the gamma-band. In these studies, a dynamic reversible figure was used which was based on the phenomenon of apparent motion. The aim of this study was to examine whether the results obtained with a dynamic motion paradigm can be replicated with the static Necker cube. The results demonstrate a general frontal gamma-band enhancement and higher induced gamma activity for subjects with a relatively high reversal rate in comparison to subjects with a relatively low reversal rate. This pattern of results fits well to the findings obtained with the dynamic motion paradigm. Therefore, the important role of frontal gamma activity for figure reversals has received further evidence. The results support the involvement of attentional top-down processing of figure reversal that is not directly related to binding processes.     

Self-reported mental problems in boys and girls: Preliminary findings

Previous research has reported higher frequency in boys than in girls of all psychopathological categories in childhood, and a reversal of the genders' ratio for adolescence and onwards. All studies about childhood mental health are based on referral by adults. The present study evaluated the prevalence of psychopathology in three age groups in childhood and adolescence, in both genders, using a new self-report scale of mental health problems for children and adolescents. Social desirability was measured separately. Five hundred sixteen school children in the fifth, seventh, and ninth grades were tested. Using the total mental health score, the study found that boys reported more disorders than girls in the two younger age groups, while the reverse was found in the oldest one. However, when social desirability was statistically controlled, the reversal phenomenon disappeared. In separate analyses of the subscales it was found that boys report more behavior problems, girls report more emotional problems in the youngest and oldest age groups, and both genders report an equal amount of school maladjustment. The results are discussed with regard to the importance of self-report and the control of social desirability.This study was conducted as an M.A. thesis in psychology by the first author, under the supervision of the second and third authors.     

决策任务反应模式对偏好反转的影响

在经典彩票问题研究的基础上,探讨了匹配和选择两种反应模式及其先后顺序对被试偏好反转的影响,以及被试性别与其偏好反转的关系。研究结果发现:(1)反应模式的变化导致偏好反转的发生;(2)偏好反转存在反应顺序效应,先匹配后选择条件下的偏好反转率显著大于先选择后匹配条件下的偏好反转率;研究结果不支持后悔理论;(3)不同性别被试在选择和匹配任务中的偏好及其反转率没有显著性差异。     

习得性空间联结的迁移依赖于语义工作记忆

采用练习迁移范式与双任务范式相结合的设计来探讨练习所习得的空间联结在工作记忆中如何表征。被试先进行不一致空间的刺激—反应映射练习任务, 五分钟后, 随机迁移到单任务(Simon任务)或者双任务(Simon任务+语义工作记忆负荷任务或空间工作记忆负荷任务)。结果发现：不一致的练习能使单任务出现反转的Simon效应, 但语义工作记忆负荷会使反转的Simon效应消失, 而空间工作记忆负荷却对反转的Simon效应没有影响。实验结果表明练习产生的空间联结依赖于语义工作记忆。     

Differences in top-down influences on the reversal rate of different categories of reversible figures

Understanding the mechanisms underlying the multistability of reversible figures may provide valuable insights into the normal functioning of our visual system. The proposed factors that control the perceptual alternations of reversible figures can be classified into bottom-up and top-down processes. In the present study, we report differences in top-down effects on the reversal rate depending on whether a structural perspective (Necker cube, Schr?der staircase) or a meaningful content (duck/rabbit figure, chef/dog figure) is subject to the reversal phenomenon. In order to activate top-down mechanisms explicitly the subjects had the instruction to bring the reversal rate under voluntary control. The results indicated that both slowing down and speeding up the rate of alternations was more effective for the content-reversal figures (duck/rabbit, chef/dog) than for the rather abstract perspective-reversal figures (Necker cube, Schr?der staircase). In order to investigate the effect of meaningfulness in figure/ground reversals, the effect of the same instructional variable was also determined for Rubin's vase/faces and the Maltese cross. The results showed a similar tendency as in the case of the comparison between perspective reversals and content reversals. Possible cognitive processes that may play a role in top-down influences on figure reversal and theoretical implications of these findings for the interaction of bottom-up and top-down processes are discussed.     

MULTIPLE TREATMENT INTERFERENCE IN THE ALTERNATING TREATMENTS DESIGN AS A FUNCTION OF THE INTERCOMPONENT INTERVAL LENGTH

In experimental designs requiring the administration of more than one treatment to the same subject(s), the effect of one treatment may be influenced by the effect of another treatment (Campbell & Stanley, 1963), a phenomenon known as multiple treatment interference. We conducted two studies in which multiple treatment interference in an alternating treatments design was shown to be a function of the length of the intercomponent interval (ICI) separating treatment conditions. In the first study, we evaluated the effects of four different treatments on the mouthing of a severely retarded boy. Under a 1-min ICI no consistent differential responding to treatment was obtained. Differential responding emerged when the ICI was increased from 1 min to 120 min, thus suggesting multiple treatment interference in the lack of differential responding under a 1-min changeover interval. Functional control of the nondifferential and differential responding as a function of the ICI length was replicated in a reversal phase. In the second study, we compared two treatment procedures for the disruptive noncompliant behavior of a moderately retarded boy. Multiple treatment interference (i.e., the lack of differential responding) occurred with the 1-min intercomponent interval. An increase to a 120-min ICI again resulted in differential responding. A replication of multiple treatment interference by a reversal to a short interval phase was not achieved in the second subject. Results of this study support much of the basic literature on discrimination and multiple treatment interference. Major findings of this study are twofold: Multiple treatment interference can depend on the length of the changeover interval between treatments and multiple treatment interference can take the form of a lack of differential responding to various treatments. Implications for future research are discussed.     

When fair is foul and foul is fair: reverse priming in automatic evaluation.

Responses to information were facilitated by the rapid prior presentation of evaluatively congruent material. This fundamental discovery (R. H. Fazio, D. M. Sanbonmatsu, M. C. Powell, & F. R. Kardes, 1986) marked a breakthrough in research on automatic information processing by demonstrating that evaluative meaning is grasped without conscious control. Experiments employing a word naming task provided stringent tests of the automaticity of evaluation and found support for it. More strikingly, a previously unobserved reversal of these effects (i.e., slower responses to evaluatively matched rather than mismatched items) was found when primes were evaluatively extreme. Procedural variances across 6 experiments revealed that the reverse priming effect was highly robust. This discovery is analogous to demonstrations of contrast effects in controlled judgments. It is theorized that the reverse priming effect reflects an automatic correction for the biasing influence of the prime.     

Further evidence of failure of reversal of ambiguous figures by uninformed subjects.

In studying the reversal of ambiguous figures investigators understandably have always informed subjects of the reversibility of the figures and of how each version appears. However, such knowledge may be a cause of reversal and is therefore an undesirable aspect of the method used to study it. An experiment is described that is an improvement in some respects on a previously reported one in which subjects are not informed about reversal. The result was that only about a third of the subjects ever reversed. In a control condition the same subjects were informed in the traditional way and then not only did they always reverse but did so very frequently in the time period tested. Theoretical implications of these findings are discussed.     

"We Don′t Expect It Happened": On Mazursky and Ofir′s (1990) Purported Reversal of the Hindsight Bias

Mazursky and Ofir (1990) recently claimed to have shown a reversal of the hindsight bias. They presented three experiments which supposedly showed that, following unexpected and surprising events, judgments were biased in a direction opposite to that predicted by the hindsight bias. We argue that the Mazursky and Ofir results should not be interpreted as a reversal of the hindsight bias for three reasons: (1) Mazursky and Ofir′s supposed reversal effect is on a rating of the quality of a product, rather than on the sort of likelihood ratings on which the hindsight bias has been demonstrated; (2) their results can readily be interpreted in terms of a contrast effect, especially in the case of their Experiments 1 and 2; and (3) given the use of quality ratings, the supposed reversal effect could have resulted from subjects′ desire to rate one product as superior, in part by rating other similar products as inferior. Discussion focuses on other purported evidence for a reversal of the hindsight effect and on suggestions for future research.