规约隐涵、一般性会话隐涵与预设范畴的扩展

本文在考察规约隐涵、一般性会话隐涵等概念及其相互关系的基础上,提出了语句的非真值条件意义的再处理设想,即缩小"隐涵"范畴,扩展"语义预设"范畴。具体言之:解散隐涵集合体,只保留特殊会话隐涵,即"隐涵"等于"特殊会话隐涵";取消"规约隐涵"概念,把它归入语义预设(强规约隐涵归入典型语义预设,弱规约隐涵归入非典型语义预设);取消"一般性会话隐涵"概念,把它归入非典型语义预设。"预设"概念的外延扩展后,其分类系统则为:预设分为语义预设与语用预设;语义预设再分为典型语义预设与非典型语义预设;语用预设再分为命题内容条件语用预设、预备性条件语用预设、真诚性条件语用预设和实质性条件语用预设。     

统一理论中非统一指称条件的疑难

一、问题的引入在近些年里,塞恩斯伯里(R.M.Sainsbury)越来越细致地为我们描画了一种理解指称的新思路,最后,他在其新书《没有指称物的指称》中提出了关于指称理论的一种系统的新框架。(Sainsbury,2005)塞恩斯伯里相信,意义真值条件理论在考虑意义问题时的基本思路,对小于语句的指称性表达(referring expressions)是适用的。对于语句,真值条件而不是真值构成了意义。无论一个语句的实际真值是真还是假,其意义都是不变的。类比于这个思路,对于一般的指称性表达,它的意义应是指称条件。无论世界上是否有东西实际上满足指称条件,指称性表达的…     

语义理论研究的新进展:从双索引赋值到二维语义学

一双索引赋值的引入语义理论主要研究语言表达式的意义或内容。在可能世界语义学中,语句的真值是在单个的可能世界中考虑的。以可能世界语义为框架,我们一般讲语句p在可能世界w中为真或者为假,并可借此讨     

语义预设的界定与鉴别

预设和蕴涵的鉴别是预设的语义分析重点研究的内容。现有的研究过分强调预设的真值定义和否定测试法会导致对语义预设的片面理解。因此,有必要对语义预设的界定和已有的鉴别方法进行分析,并根据预设是语义和语用的接口的语言事实,结合语用来弥补预设语义分析的缺陷,以便更准确地鉴别语义预设。     

西方道德情感哲学的发展进程 ——从近代到现当代的逻辑勾连

以休谟为代表的近代英国道德情感主义理论沿着"心理描述"和"语义分析"两种进路/方法"分化"发展,分别形成基于情感(德性)的规范伦理学和元伦理学。现代情感(表达)主义元伦理学是近代道德情感主义理论"异化"发展形态,它运用语义分析的方法揭示出道德语言的实践本性,其实是对规范伦理学之实践本性的反面论证。以斯洛特为代表的当代关怀主义(德性)伦理学自觉体现了方法论上的"扬弃"精神,使"心理描述"和"语义分析"两种方法获得了新的统一。斯洛特通过吸收和改造中国"阴/阳"哲学概念,为解决元伦理学长期以来的"应该/态度/价值"与"是/信念/事实"之间的二元对立问题提供了一种新思路,为当代中西方道德哲学的协同创新研究开拓了新局面。     

语句的语形分析——语言逻辑漫话之三

1.两种语形分析自然语句的分析,可以是语形的,也可以是语义或语用的。如果不去讨论语句的指谓性,更不去讨论使用语句的人,也就是说不作语义和语用的分析,而仅仅着眼于形式,即着眼于它们组成元素的时空关系,这就是语句的语形分析。     

NTV观点引发的逻辑哲学问题——直陈条件句能嵌套吗

NTV观点的核心思想是直陈条件句不是命题,它没有真值条件并且无真值,其既不为真也不为假,而只表现为一个相应的概率值。这就引发了一个有争论的逻辑哲学问题——直陈条件句能否嵌套。如果把直陈条件句视为无真值的,那么嵌套后的复合条件句就不能判断其真假（真值表不能使用）。对于直陈条件句能否嵌套的问题,学界有不同的观点,我们认为要完全解决真之条件主义与条件概率主义两者之间的矛盾是非常困难的,然而,完全接受条件概率论题的哲学后果是非常危险的,同样,暗示放弃真之语义观也是非常危险的。     

语义预设的合理性辩护

弗雷格是第一个注意到命题的预设为假会影响到命题真值判定的哲学家。对这种因预设为假而形成的真值空隙,弗雷格、罗素和斯特劳森提出了不同的处理方式,由此奠定了预设的语义解释的基础。但预设的语义解释一直面临着种种质疑。这些质疑有说服力吗?应该放弃预设的语义解释吗?本文将对此进行分析,揭示这些质疑中所存在的问题,从而对预设的语义解释的合理性进行辩护。一、预设为假与真值空隙第一个把预设作为逻辑概念加以讨论的哲学家是弗雷格,其预设思想可以归纳为四点:第一,预     

再论道德理论的层次结构：以义促利 ——与陈晓平教授、罗伟玲博士商榷

陈晓平教授、罗伟玲博士在《试论道德理论的层次结构——兼论儒家伦理与西方伦理之比较》一文中关于儒家伦理的表述前后有矛盾,以情感主义道义论概括儒家伦理和以情感主义功利论概括休谟、斯密也有失偏颇,因此,该文通过"四大道德学派"之间的相互比较说明的道德理论的层次结构以及通过"中西伦理再比较"(以儒家伦理代表中国伦理)得出的中西方伦理之间呈现"互补格局"的结论,也有失误。事实上,道德理论的总原则是以义致利或以义促利,道德理论层次结构应为情感主义以义致利论→理性主义道义论→功利论。该文概括的"道德哲学的四大分野即理性主义、情感主义、功利论、道义论",应该被浓缩为儒家、休谟、斯密代表的情感主义以义致利论,康德代表的理性主义道义论和边沁、密尔代表的最大幸福派功利论。     

关于存在预设失效的语义学探究

存在预设在经典逻辑中有着重要的地位。存在预设失效了的逻辑系统就会成为一种自由逻辑系统,不得不面对空名与真值间隙问题。本文基于这些自由逻辑系统讨论了如何为存在预设失效提供一个合适的语义解释:首先通过语义预设的概念来定义存在预设、将真值间隙定义为二值原则失效,而后比较了为真值间隙赋值的不同方案,最终在虚构主义的立场上指出,超赋值语义学在把空名看作虚构对象名称的同时保留了逻辑真,是较为理想的语义解释。     

Massed practice exercises for the elimination of tooth-grinding habits

In 1958, Wolpe described a method for the treatment of excessive tooth-grinding habits based on the principle of massed practice. Wolpe placed his patient on a regimen of exercises in which the patient was required to clench his teeth tightly together for 1 min and then to relax his jaws for 1 min. The patient was instructed to do this five times for one block of trials. Six blocks were to be performed each day for a 2-week period. Wolpe reported the successful elimination of the patient's bruxomania.Ayer and Gale (1969) applied Wolpe's technique in the treatment of a student with a severe bruxing problem and reported that it was effective in eliminating the disorder. Ayer and Levin (1973) felt that the 1-min clenching interval was difficult, if not impossible, for the patient to sustain and eventually determined that 5-sec exercise periods with 5-sec relaxation periods were effective. At a 1-month follow-up they reported treatment had been effective in almost 80% of their patients. Those patients who were not successfully treated were teen-age girls who found the exercise schedule too tedious and time consuming and had failed to perform the exercises.Rugh and Solberg (1974) measured nocturnal masseter muscle electrical activity in fifteen bruxist patients, in an effort to evaluate the effectiveness of massed practice therapy. One group was required to clench their teeth vigorously one hundred times, six times daily. Another group was directed to chew gum for 1$\text{1}\text{2}$ min. six times daily. The placebo group merely clenched the fist and arms one hundred times, six times daily. Nocturnal masseter muscle activity was significantly reduced in both treatment groups as compared to the placebo group, thus permitting the inference that the oral exercises significantly reduced the grinding habits as measured by the electrical activity.Massed practice therapy does appear to be effective for the elimination of tooth-grinding problems. However, the question of long-term effectiveness must still be raised. The present paper reports the results of a year-long follow-up of patients treated with this technique.     

Time's Arrow and Irreversibility in Time‐Asymmetric Quantum Mechanics

The aim of this paper is to analyze time‐asymmetric quantum mechanics with respect to the problems of irreversibility and of time’s arrow. We begin with arguing that both problems are conceptually different. Then, we show that, contrary to a common opinion, the theory’s ability to describe irreversible quantum processes is not a consequence of the semigroup evolution laws expressing the non‐time‐reversal invariance of the theory. Finally, we argue that time‐asymmetric quantum mechanics, either in Prigogine’s version or in Bohm’s version, does not solve the problem of the arrow of time because it does not supply a substantial and theoretically founded criterion for distinguishing between the two directions of time.     

A computational analysis of general intelligence tests for evaluating cognitive development

The progression in several cognitive tests for the same subjects at different ages provides valuable information about their cognitive development. One question that has caught recent interest is whether the same approach can be used to assess the cognitive development of artificial systems. In particular, can we assess whether the ‘fluid’ or ‘crystallised’ intelligence of an artificial cognitive system is changing during its cognitive development as a result of acquiring more concepts? In this paper, we address several IQ tests problems (odd-one-out problems, Raven’s Progressive Matrices and Thurstone’s letter series) with a general learning system that is not particularly designed on purpose to solve intelligence tests. The goal is to better understand the role of the basic cognitive operational constructs (such as identity, difference, order, counting, logic, etc.) that are needed to solve these intelligence test problems and serve as a proof-of-concept for evaluation in other developmental problems. From here, we gain some insights into the characteristics and usefulness of these tests and how careful we need to be when applying human test problems to assess the abilities and cognitive development of robots and other artificial cognitive systems.     

4～6岁儿童加减法反演律概念的发展与影响因素

儿童对加法和减法逆反关系的理解在加法概念和减法概念的学习中具有十分重要的作用。研究采用代数推理任务、给数取物任务、数量比较任务和记忆刷新任务,对83名4到6岁幼儿进行施测,考察4到6岁儿童加减法反演律概念的发展特点,探讨儿童的基数概念、数量比较、记忆刷新能力在反演律概念发展中的作用。结果发现:(1)5岁到6岁是儿童掌握和运用加减法反演律概念的快速发展时期。幼儿的加减法反演律概念表现出数量大小效应以及问题情境效应,小数反演问题的成绩优于大数反演问题的成绩,符号化数量反演的成绩优于集合数量反演的成绩。(2)基数概念掌握组儿童加减法反演律概念的发展显著优于未掌握组;但儿童基数概念的掌握情况并不显著预测儿童反演律概念的发展。(3)数量比较、记忆刷新对儿童加减法反演律概念的发展具有显著的正向预测作用。     

Linking Maternal Socialization of Positive Emotions to Children’s Behavioral Problems: The Moderating Role of Self-Control

Little is known about how parents socialize children’s positive affect regulation during late childhood. Consequently, we examined how mothers’ reported responses to their children’s (aged 7–12 years) positive emotions were linked to children’s behavioral problems and how children’s self-control moderated these associations. Our results indicated that maternal encouragement of positive emotions predicted fewer externalizing behaviors, but only for youth with lower self-control. Maternal explanation about their children’s positive emotions was unrelated to youth’s behavioral problems. Lastly, maternal dismissing responses to their children’s positive emotions (i.e., reprimanding responses and discomfort) were related to more externalizing and internalizing in youth, and these effects were not dependent on the children’s self-control. The current study adds to the limited research on positive affect socialization and offers some evidence that youth’s self-control may serve as a vantage-sensitivity factor in the association between maternal positive affect socialization and youth adjustment.     

An All Too Radical Solution to the Problem of Evil: a Reply to Harrison

Gerald Harrison has recently argued the evidential problem of evil can be resolved if we assume the moral facts are identical to God’s commands or favorings. On a theistic metaethics, the moral facts are identical to what God commands or favors. Our moral intuitions reflect what God commands or favors for us to do, but not what God favors for Herself to do. Thus, on Harrison’s view, while we can know the moral facts as they pertain to humans, we cannot know the moral facts as they pertain to God. Therefore, Harrison argues, the evidential problem of evil inappropriately assumes God to be intuitively moral, when we have no reason to suppose a perfectly good being would match the expectations provided by our moral intuitions. Harrison calls his view a new form of skeptical theism. In response, I show Harrison’s attempt to dissolve the problem of evil exacerbates well-known skeptical consequences of skeptical theism. Harrison’s new skeptical theism leaves us with problems motivating a substantive religious life, the inability to provide a variety of theological explanations, and, despite Harrison’s comments to the contrary, worsens problems having to do with the possibility of divine deception.     

The Role of Language Skill in Child Psychopathology: Implications for Intervention in the Early Years

In this narrative review, we suggest that children’s language skill should be targeted in clinical interventions for children with emotional and behavioral difficulties in the preschool years. We propose that language skill predicts childhood emotional and behavioral problems and this relationship may be mediated by children’s self-regulation and emotion understanding skills. In the first sections, we review recent high-quality longitudinal studies which together demonstrate that that children’s early language skill predicts: (1) emotional and behavioral problems, and this relationship is stronger than the reverse pattern; (2) self-regulation skill; this pattern may be stronger than the reverse pattern but moderated by child age. Findings also suggest that self-regulation skill mediates the relation between early language skill and children’s emotional and behavioral problems. There is insufficient evidence regarding the mediating role of emotion understanding. In subsequent sections, we review evidence demonstrating that: (1) particular kinds of developmentally targeted parent–child conversations play a vital role in the development of language skill, and (2) some current clinical interventions, directly or indirectly, have a beneficial impact on children’s vocabulary and narrative skills, but most approaches are ad hoc. Targeting language via parent–child conversation has the potential to improve the outcomes of current clinical interventions in the preschool years.     

Exploring the tractability border in epistemic tasks

We analyse the computational complexity of comparing informational structures. Intuitively, we study the complexity of deciding queries such as the following: Is Alice’s epistemic information strictly coarser than Bob’s? Do Alice and Bob have the same knowledge about each other’s knowledge? Is it possible to manipulate Alice in a way that she will have the same beliefs as Bob? The results show that these problems lie on both sides of the border between tractability (P) and intractability (NP-hard). In particular, we investigate the impact of assuming information structures to be partition-based (rather than arbitrary relational structures) on the complexity of various problems. We focus on the tractability of concrete epistemic tasks and not on epistemic logics describing them.