Achievement Goal Impacts Students' Preferences for “Personalized Problems” in Computer-Adaptive Tests1

The contemporary development of psychometric theories and information technologies enables students to work on algorithm-based personalized tests in classroom settings. This study aims to investigate the relationship between students' achievement goals and what they prefer as “personalized problems” in computer-adaptive tests. We theoretically contrast achievement goals with developing competency through mastery and demonstrating competency through performance goals. We asked elementary and secondary school students to work on a computer-adaptive test and to complete questionnaires about what they prefer as “personalized problems” in computer-adaptive tests. The results revealed that while mastery goals positively predicted preference for challenging problems, performance goals positively predicted preference for problems that guaranteed students’ success. Moreover, only the preference for challenging problems positively predicted the intention to take computer-adaptive tests in the future. These results suggest that simply introducing a computer-adaptive test into the classroom may not be effective. We discuss how educational technologies should be integrated into human teaching activities.     

An Introduction to Latent Class Growth Analysis and Growth Mixture Modeling

In recent years, there has been a growing interest among researchers in the use of latent class and growth mixture modeling techniques for applications in the social and psychological sciences, in part due to advances in and availability of computer software designed for this purpose (e.g., Mplus and SAS Proc Traj). Latent growth modeling approaches, such as latent class growth analysis (LCGA) and growth mixture modeling (GMM), have been increasingly recognized for their usefulness for identifying homogeneous subpopulations within the larger heterogeneous population and for the identification of meaningful groups or classes of individuals. The purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of LCGA and GMM, compare the different techniques of latent growth modeling, discuss current debates and issues, and provide readers with a practical guide for conducting LCGA and GMM using the Mplus software.     

School profiles of at-risk student concentration: Differential growth in oral reading fluency

The present study provides a data-driven approach to identifying groups of schools based on the concentration of at-risk students the school serves. The percentage of English language learners, minority students, and students eligible for free or reduced priced lunch were used as indicators in a latent profile analysis of 569 schools. The goal of the present study was to determine whether school-level average student reading performance varied as a function of the groups identified in the latent profile analysis. To do so, groups extracted by the latent profile analysis were used as school-level predictors of growth in oral reading fluency, which was modeled at the within-student level of a three-level hierarchical growth curve model. Oral reading fluency was measured at four points during the year in a large cross-sectional sample of first-, second-, and third-grade students. Results indicated that schools were able to be classified into four distinct groups based on their concentrations and types of at-risk students. Further, in all three grades, there were significant differences between the four identified groups observed in average reading fluency scores at the beginning of the year, the end of the year, and growth during the year indicating that groups based on school-concentration of at-risk students were significantly related to average student achievement in reading ability.     

Examining the core: Relations among reading curricula, poverty, and first through third grade reading achievement

Policy changes at the federal and state level are endeavoring to improve student achievement at schools serving children from lower-SES homes. One important strategy is the focus on using evidence-based core reading curricula to provide a consistent framework for instruction across schools. However, rarely have these curricula undergone rigorous comparative testing. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to compare the effects of six core reading curricula on oral reading fluency growth, while appraising whether these effects differ by grade level and for children living in lower socioeconomic (SES) households. Over 30,000 students in first through third grade Florida Reading First classrooms comprise this academically and economically diverse cross-sectional. Hierarchical Linear Modeling was used to model latent growth curves for students' reading fluency scores over the school year. Growth curves revealed differences across curricula as well as between students of lower and higher SES, suggesting that reading fluency growth trajectories for curricula varied depending on student SES and grade level. Findings indicate that while there are similarities among curricula, they sometimes differ in their ability to promote reading skill growth. Differences by grade level and SES were also detected. However, many of these differences were small. Implications for the use of curriculum as a conduit for improving reading instruction are discussed.     

多阶段混合增长模型的影响因素：距离与形态

通过模拟研究, 考察潜类别距离和发展形态等因素对多阶段混合增长模型的模型选择和参数估计的影响：(1)潜类别距离越大, 模型选择和分类效果越好。(2)混合模型的选择, 应以一定样本量(至少200)为前提, 首先考虑BIC选出正确的分类模型, 再通过熵值、ARI等选择分类确定性较高的模型。(3)多阶段的发展形态对正确模型的选择和分类的确定性均有一定程度影响。(4)潜类别距离和样本量越大, 参数估计精度越高。(5)在判断分类准确性的指标中, ARI的选择更偏向于真实的模型。     

Prosody instruction intervention as a means to improved reading comprehension

The relationship between prosody and comprehension, previously demonstrated in K–12 students, was examined in university students enrolled in first‐year writing classes. Students completed the Gray Oral Reading Test‐5 both before and after an expressive reading intervention (ER) or no oral reading instruction (NI). Throughout the semester, the ER students marked an excerpt of text for prosodic signals and read it aloud with a partner. Training and practice in expressive reading led to a significant improvement in the normed Oral Reading Index score. Specifically, ER participants demonstrated improved accuracy, fluency, and reading comprehension in comparison with NI participants. The significant relationship between accuracy and comprehension in the ER condition suggests that expressive reading instruction strengthened student ability to read words accurately and, in turn, comprehend the material better than students in the NI condition. Expressive reading practices are recommended to engage students more deeply with the text.     

The Reading Development of Swedish L2 Middle School Students and Its Relation to Reading Strategy Use

This two-year longitudinal study investigated Swedish L2 middle school students’ reading development and its relation to reported strategy use. Reading comprehension was measured on three occasions and strategy use was examined using the Metacognitive Awareness of Reading Strategies Inventory (MARSI) scale. The results show that student reading comprehension scores develop significantly over the last two years of middle school (grades 5–6). As expected, second-generation immigrant students score higher than first-generation immigrants, but the differences are not statistically significant. The study shows no gender-related differences in relation to reading strategy use. Boys and girls use strategies to a similar extent. However, good readers reported using all types of reading strategies, particularly global strategies, to a greater extent than poor readers. Interestingly, the reading achievement of boys was strongly correlated to the reported use of global strategies, while the reading achievement of girls was not correlated to strategy use at all. Implications of the study and suggestions for further research are discussed.     

Estimating Reading Growth Attributable to Accelerated Reader at One American School in the Caribbean

This article provides a statistical analysis of the reading gains observed at one American school in the Caribbean that was using Accelerated Reader. It provides an estimate of the number of hours students needed to read to advance their reading performance an additional year. The authors estimate how much Accelerated Reader contributed to the advancement and determine how many points per grade a student needs to earn to make a year of reading growth. When points are converted to hours of time, the data show that it takes about 800 hours of time each year for students in grade 3 through grade 12 to achieve a year of growth. It is the conclusion then that students who read this much would spend about 9,600 total hours reading during their first 12 years of schooling.     

Thoughts about a successful future encourage action in the face of challenge

College environments can put lower socioeconomic status (SES) female students at particular risk of withdrawing during challenging academic situations. However, thinking about reaching a successful future identity may encourage these students to take action rather than withdraw. In a laboratory experiment, we tested the hypothesis that imagining a successful future identity would help lower SES female students to actively and successfully confront challenging tasks (i.e., a mock student–faculty interaction and difficult academic test). As predicted, when future identities were cued rather than past identities, lower SES female students demonstrated greater action readiness. Specifically, they showed more expansive body posture during the mock interaction and more attempts to complete the academic test, which led to better performance. The motivation to take action among higher SES and male students, who are at lower risk of vulnerability in college environments, was not influenced by future identities.     

The Relationships Between Korean University Students’ Reading Attitude,Reading Strategy Use,and Reading Proficiency

This present study investigated the relationships among L2 readers’ reading attitude, reading strategy use, and reading proficiency in order to identify patterns caused by individuals’ differences. For this study, 153 Korean university students replied to a reading attitude and reading strategy questionnaire. An ANOVA and frequency analysis were employed to analyze the data. The results showed that of the six components used to measure reading attitude in this study, only discomfort was found to be related to reading proficiency. With regards to reading strategy use, metacognitive strategy use was identified as having a significant relationship with reading proficiency, suggesting its important role in reading skill. Interestingly, discomfort and linguistic value were more closely associated with their cognitive strategy use, while comfort and intellectual value were strongly related to metacognitive strategy use. The pedagogical implications based on the findings from this study are offered to assist students in developing their L2 reading skills.     

Identifying Children in Middle Childhood Who Are at Risk for Reading Problems

The purpose of this study was to identify and evaluate a universal screening battery for reading that is appropriate for older elementary students in a response to intervention model. Multiple measures of reading and reading correlates were administered to 230 fourth-grade children. Teachers rated children's reading skills, academic competence, and attention. Children were classified as not-at-risk or at-risk readers based on a three-factor model reflecting reading comprehension, word recognition/decoding, and word fluency. Predictors of reading status included group-administered tests of reading comprehension, silent word reading fluency, and teacher ratings of reading problems. Inclusion of individually administered tests and growth estimates did not add substantial variance. The receiver-operator characteristic curve analysis yielded an area under the curve index of 0.90, suggesting this model may both accurately and efficiently screen older elementary students with reading problems.     

Curriculum tracking and teacher expectations: evidence from discrepant course taking models

In an effort to understand teacher-student relationships much research has investigated how teacher expectations of student performance in the classroom affect achievement growth. However, little research has focused on how teacher expectations of students?? educational attainment are formed. In this paper, we examine how students?? high school track placements affect teacher expectations regarding students?? educational attainment in the NELS data. NELS is a large, nationally representative longitudinal study from the United States of the graduating class of 1992. We focus on students with discrepant track placements to determine how different teachers evaluate the same student. Overall, for the same student, teachers in high track classes have higher college expectations than teachers in lower track classrooms.     

Improving Iranian Graduate Students’ Performance in Reading Scientific Articles in English Through Explicit Strategy Instruction

The purpose of this mixed-method investigation was to examine the effect of explicit instruction of cognitive strategies on the reading performance of Iranian graduate students and identify the cognitive strategies the participants used while reading a scientific article in English (L2). Prior to the study, the students completed a questionnaire and took part in a semi-structured interview providing information on the reading strategies they used while reading English texts. In order to also identify the participants’ improvement in reading English texts, they completed the reading section of the IELTS test prior to and following the treatment. During a 16-week course, students became familiar with cognitive strategies through explicit instruction. At the end of the course, the students were required to read a scientific article in English and think-aloud in order to identify the reading strategies they employed while reading. The quantitative results (paired-sample T-test) revealed that the participants’ reading comprehension significantly improved after explicit instruction of cognitive strategies. The qualitative data (think-aloud protocols) indicated that the participants used more cognitive strategies while reading scientific articles in English after receiving explicit instruction. Pedagogical implications are provided for further research.     

Effect of initial status and growth in pseudoword reading on Spanish reading comprehension at the end of first grade

This study analyzes the effect of initial status and growth in Spanish pseudoword reading in kindergarten and first grade on reading comprehension in Spanish at the end of first grade. One hundred and sixty-eight Spanish-speaking English learners who were learning to read in Spanish and English in the United States participated in the study. Results of hierarchical linear modeling indicate that students grew, on average, by 95 letter-sounds in Spanish from the middle of kindergarten to the end of first grade. Structural equation modeling indicated that 53% of the variance in Spanish reading comprehension at the end of first grade was explained by Spanish initial status on pseudoword reading, Spanish kindergarten overall reading performance, and growth in Spanish pseudoword reading. Findings are important in a Response to Intervention approach where screening and progress monitoring of pseudoword reading helps educators determine the level of support beginning readers need to acquire the alphabetic principle, an important skill that contributes substantially to Spanish reading comprehension.     

Expecting the best for students: Teacher expectations and academic outcomes

Background. Research into teacher expectations has shown that these have an effect on student achievement. Some researchers have explored the impact of various student characteristics on teachers' expectations. One attribute of interest is ethnicity. Aims. This study aimed to explore differences in teachers' expectations and judgments of student reading performance for Maori, Pacific Island, Asian and New Zealand European students. A further objective was to compare teacher expectations and judgments with actual student achievement. Sample. The participants were 540 students of 21 primary teachers in Auckland schools. Of these students, 261 were New Zealand European, 88 were Maori, 97 were Pacific Island and 94 were Asian. Methods. At the beginning of the year, the teachers completed a survey related to their expectations for their students' achievement in reading and, at the end of the year, they judged the reading levels their students had actually achieved. The survey data were compared with running record data. Results. Teachers' expectations for students in reading were significantly higher than actual achievement for all ethnic groups other than Maori. Maori students' achievement was similar to that of the other groups at the beginning of the year but, by the end of the year, they had made the least gains of all groups. Conclusions. Sustaining expectation effects are one explanation for Maori students' limited progress. For Pacific Island, Asian and New Zealand European students, positive self‐fulfilling prophecies may be operating. Future research could investigate the learning opportunities provided to these ethnic groups and the relationship of these to teachers' expectations.     

Avoidance temperament and social-evaluative threat in college students' math performance: a mediation model of math and test anxiety

Background and Objectives: Standardized testing has become a common form of student evaluation with high stakes, and limited research exists on understanding the roles of students' personality traits and social-evaluative threat on their academic performance. This study examined the roles of avoidance temperament (i.e., fear and behavioral inhibition) and evaluative threat (i.e., fear of failure and being viewed as unintelligent) in standardized math test and course grades in college students. Design and Methods: Undergraduate students (N = 184) from a large public university were assessed on temperamental fear and behavioral inhibition. They were then given 15 minutes to complete a standardized math test. After the test, students provided data on evaluative threat and their math performance (scores on standardized college entrance exam and average grades in college math courses). Results: Results indicate that avoidance temperament was linked to social-evaluative threat and low standardized math test scores. Furthermore, evaluative threat mediated the influence of avoidance temperament on both types of math performance. Conclusions: Results have educational and clinical implications, particularly for students at risk for test anxiety and underperformance. Interventions targeting emotion regulation and stress management skills may help individuals reduce their math and test anxieties.     

A Preliminary Investigation of Supplemental Computer-Assisted Reading Instruction on the Oral Reading Fluency and Comprehension of First-Grade African American Urban Students

This preliminary investigation examined the effects of a computerized supplemental reading program on the oral reading fluency, reading growth rates, and comprehension of 8 African American first graders. Participants were selected for this study according to scores within risk categories on the Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS) oral reading fluency (ORF) winter benchmark, indicating the potential for reading failure. Participants engaged in a supplemental, computer-based reading program designed to improve reading fluency and comprehension. Treatment sessions were conducted 3–4 times per week, for 14–16 weeks. Following the treatment, each participant received the DIBELS ORF spring benchmark as a post-test measure. A pre-intervention/post-intervention analysis showed that all of the participants increased their reading fluency, 5 of the 8 participants reduced their risk status, and 7 of the 8 students increased their reading rate. All of the students improved their comprehension scores. The results support supplementary interventions and computer-based reading programs. The findings are discussed in the context of reading needs and instruction for African American primary-aged students.     

Comparing Brief Experimental Analysis and Teacher Judgment for Selecting Early Reading Interventions

The purpose of this study was to examine the use of brief experimental analysis (BEA) to identify early reading interventions for students in the primary grades and to compare teachers’ judgments about their students’ early reading intervention needs to BEA results. In addition, the research was conducted to explore how teachers make decisions regarding early reading intervention selection and evaluation. Three teachers and three elementary students (two kindergarten and one second grade) participated in the study. A BEA using a multielement design with mini-reversals was used to test the effects of four different interventions. Each teacher selected an intervention that she judged to be the most promising for her student. An extended analysis using an alternating treatments design compared the relative effects of the BEA-identified intervention and the teacher-identified intervention across time. The teachers were interviewed before and after selecting and implementing the interventions. The extended analysis results showed that the BEA-identified intervention was more effective than the teacher-identified intervention for all participants. Initial and final interview findings revealed that the teachers reported using data to make intervention decisions, but with limited specificity and in some cases, misjudgments. The results are discussed in regard to limitations and future research.     

Curriculum-based measurement of oral reading (R-CBM): A diagnostic test accuracy meta-analysis of evidence supporting use in universal screening

A great deal of research over the past decade has examined the appropriateness of curriculum-based measurement of oral reading (R-CBM) in universal screening. Multiple researchers have meta-analyzed available correlational evidence, yielding support for the interpretation of R-CBM as an indicator of general reading proficiency. In contrast, researchers have yet to synthesize diagnostic accuracy evidence, which pertains to the defensibility of the use of R-CBM for screening purposes. The overall purpose of this research was to therefore conduct the first meta-analysis of R-CBM diagnostic accuracy research. A systematic search of the literature resulted in the identification of 34 studies, including 20 peer-reviewed articles, 7 dissertations, and 7 technical reports. Bivariate hierarchical linear models yielded generalized estimates of diagnostic accuracy statistics, which predominantly exceeded standards for acceptable universal screener performance. For instance, when predicting criterion outcomes within a school year (≤ 9 months), R-CBM sensitivity ranged between .80 and .83 and specificity ranged between .71 and .73. Multiple moderators of R-CBM diagnostic accuracy were identified, including the (a) R-CBM cut score used to define risk, (b) lag in time between R-CBM and criterion test administration, and (c) percentile rank corresponding to the criterion test cut score through which students were identified as either truly at risk or not at risk. Follow-up analyses revealed substantial variability of extracted cut scores within grade and time of year (i.e., fall, winter, and spring). This result called into question the inflexible application of a single cut score across contexts and suggested the potential necessity of local cut scores. Implications for practices, directions for future research, and limitations are discussed.