A meta-analytic review of experiments examining the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation

A meta-analysis of 128 studies examined the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. As predicted, engagement-contingent, completion-contingent, and performance-contingent rewards significantly undermined free-choice intrinsic motivation (d = -0.40, -0.36, and -0.28, respectively), as did all rewards, all tangible rewards, and all expected rewards. Engagement-contingent and completion-contingent rewards also significantly undermined self-reported interest (d = -0.15, and -0.17), as did all tangible rewards and all expected rewards. Positive feedback enhanced both free-choice behavior (d = 0.33) and self-reported interest (d = 0.31). Tangible rewards tended to be more detrimental for children than college students, and verbal rewards tended to be less enhancing for children than college students. The authors review 4 previous meta-analyses of this literature and detail how this study's methods, analyses, and results differed from the previous ones.     

Self-perception of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

Self-perception theory predicts that intrinsic and extrinsic motivation do not combine additively but rather interact. To test this predicted interaction, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation were both manipulated as independent variables. The results revealed a significant interaction for task satisfaction and a trend for the interaction on a behavioral measure. These results are discussed in terms of a general approach to the self-perception of motivation.     

Causality orientations moderate the undermining effect of rewards on intrinsic motivation

The present study tested the hypothesis that individual differences in autonomy or control causality orientation would moderate the undermining effect of rewards on intrinsic motivation. Equal numbers of autonomy- and control-orientated participants provided solutions to an interesting puzzle under reward or no reward conditions. Participants were then required to provide further solutions to the puzzle in a free-choice period. The time spent in solving the puzzle during the free-choice period constituted the dependent measure of intrinsic motivation. Results revealed a significant interaction effect of causality orientations and reward condition on intrinsic motivation. Control-oriented participants assigned to the reward condition exhibited significantly lower levels of intrinsic motivation compared to those assigned to the no reward condition. In contrast, there was no significant difference in intrinsic motivation levels across the reward conditions for autonomy-oriented individuals. Findings indicate that an autonomy-oriented causality orientation offered a degree of ‘protection’ from the undermining effect of rewards on intrinsic motivation. This is in keeping with self-determination theory in terms of the interactive effects of environmental events and interpersonal factors on intrinsic motivation.     

The effects of non-contingent extrinsic and intrinsic rewards on memory consolidation

Emotional and arousing treatments given shortly after learning enhance delayed memory retrieval in animal and human studies. Positive affect and reward induced prior to a variety of cognitive tasks enhance performance, but their ability to affect memory consolidation has not been investigated before. Therefore, we investigated the effects of a small, non-contingent, intrinsic or extrinsic reward on delayed memory retrieval. Participants (n=108) studied and recalled a list of 30 affectively neutral, imageable nouns. Experimental groups were then given either an intrinsic reward (e.g., praise) or an extrinsic reward (e.g., US 1 dollar). After a one-week delay, participants' retrieval performance for the word list was significantly better in the extrinsic reward groups, whether the reward was expected or not, than in controls. Those who received the intrinsic reward performed somewhat better than controls, but the difference was not significant. Thus, at least some forms of arousal and reward, even when semantically unrelated to the learned material, can effectively modulate memory consolidation. These types of treatments might be useful for the development of new memory intervention strategies.     

The effects of intrinsic and extrinsic rewards in a risk-taking situation

This study varied both the intrinsic and extrinsic rewards associated with performing a task in a risk taking situation. When the task performed to win a prize provided little if any intrinsic reward, subjects liked and tried for prizes that were easy to obtain. In contrast, when the task was intrinsically rewarding, subjects liked and tried for those prizes that were somewhat more difficult to obtain. In addition, subjects were more likely to like and try for prizes easier to obtain when the extrinsic reward was high.     

A process analysis of the effects of performance-contingent rewards on intrinsic motivation

In this study, the effects of performance-contingent rewards on intrinsic motivation were examined in comparison to no-reward controls receiving identical performance feedback. A path analytic process analysis was conducted to examine the mediation of reward effects on subsequent task interest. It was hypothesized that competence valuation, or the personal importance of doing well, would be an important mediator of interest in situations where performance feedback was available. Rewards were predicted to affect interest by influencing an individual's valuation of competence, and by altering the competence valuation mediation process. In addition, achievement orientation was hypothesized to interact with reward in affecting importance and the mediation process. Prior to performing an interesting puzzle, high school students were offered a performance-contingent reward, and then indicated how personally important it was to do well. After doing three puzzles, all subjects received positive feedback regarding their performance. Multiple regression analyses indicated that importance was affected by the experimental variables, and had a positive causal impact on subsequent intrinsic motivation. It was found that the promise of performance-contingent reward positively affected importance for low achievers relative to high achievers, and that the mediation of subsequent intrinsic interest by importance differed according to reward by achievement combinations. Additionally, a direct effect revealed that performance-contingent rewards significantly enhanced interest, relative to no-reward controls receiving identical performance feedback.     

An integrative analysis of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in sport

Abstract

The purpose of this paper is to propose a motivational sequence that integrates much of the intrinsic and extrinsic motivation literature in sport. The proposed motivational sequence: “Social Factors → Psychological Mediators → Types of Motivation → Consequences” is in line with self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan. 1985. 1991) and the Hierarchical model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (Vallerand, 1997). Using the sequence, it is first shown that the motivational impact of social factors inherent in sport, such as competition/cooperation, success/failure, and coaches' behaviors toward athletes, takes place through their influence on athletes' perceptions of autonomy, competence, and relatedness (i.e., the psychological mediators). Second, recent results are provided with respect to a new multidimensional measure (i.e., the Sport Motivation Scale; Pelletier et al., 1995) to assess the different types of athletes' motives. Third, we review findings that suggest that such sport motives lead to various consequences for the athlete e.g.     

Mastery motivation in boys and girls: The role of intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation

This research tested the hypothesis that the importance of adult approval and feedback for females relative to males would render girls of elementary school age more likely to develop an extrinsic orientation in comparison to boys. Using S. Harter's Scale of Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motivation [(1981), “A New Self-Report Scale of Intrinsic Versus Extrinsic Motivational Orientation in the Classroom: Motivational and Informational Components,” Developmental Psychology Vol. 17, pp. 300–312], the data supported this hypothesis. Because of the assumed differential importance of controlling feedback from adults for females relative to males, a second study examined girls' and boys' preference for challenge as a function of adult controlling feedback and children's motivational orientation. The pattern of data supported the hypothesis that girls relative to boys show differential preferences for challenge, depending on the presence of type of adult feedback and motivational orientation in girls.     

Pervasive negative effects of rewards on intrinsic motivation: The myth continues

A major concern in psychology and education is that rewards decrease intrinsic motivation to perform activities. Over the past 30 years, more than 100 experimental studies have been conducted on this topic. In 1994, Cameron and Pierce conducted a meta-analysis of this literature and concluded that negative effects of reward were limited and could be easily prevented in applied settings. A more recent meta-analysis of the literature by Deci, Koestner, and Ryan (1999) shows pervasive negative effects of reward. The purpose of the present article is to resolve differences in previous meta-analytic findings and to provide a meta-analysis of rewards and intrinsic motivation that permits tests of competing theoretical explanations. Our results suggest that in general, rewards are not harmful to motivation to perform a task. Rewards given for low-interest tasks enhance free-choice intrinsic motivation. On high-interest tasks, verbal rewards produce positive effects on free-choice motivation and self-reported task interest. Negative effects are found on high-interest tasks when the rewards are tangible, expected (offered beforehand), and loosely tied to level of performance. When rewards are linked to level of performance, measures of intrinsic motivation increase or do not differ from a nonrewarded control group. Overall, the pattern of results indicates that reward contingencies do not have pervasive negative effects on intrinsic motivation. Theoretical and practical implications of the findings are addressed.     

Intrinsic motivation as a function of extrinsic financial rewards and subjects'locus of control

Two studies investigating the effects of pay on the intrinsic motivation of subjects varying along the dimension of locus of control were conducted. It was hypothesized that internals, who should assign greater weight to the competency aspect of rewards they receive, would manifest increasing intrinsic motivation as pay increased. Externals, who should be more likely to focus on the controlling aspects of rewards, were expected to show decreases in intrinsic motivation as rewards increased. In Study 1, where both the controlling and competency aspects of the rewards offered were deliberately kept vague, the hypotheses were supported. In Study 2, where the controlling aspect of the pay offered was made salient by making pay contingent upon performance, high pay undermined the intrinsic motivation of both internals and externals. It was suggested that only when the controlling aspect of pay is not salient will the intrinsic motivation of externals and internals be differentially affected. Support for the hypothesis that internals and externals differentially weight available information when making causal attributions was also noted.     

内外动机对青少年记忆的影响及其神经机制

动机是一切行为的核心, 动机可分为外在和内在动机。青少年时期既是记忆的关键期, 也是动机发展的特殊时期。然而, 目前关于内外动机影响青少年记忆的研究才刚刚起步, 尚不清楚外在和内在动机影响青少年记忆的规律和机制是否一致, 也不清楚二者如何交互影响记忆。本研究将结合认知范式和脑成像技术, 考察外在和内在动机如何分别影响以及交互影响青少年记忆。这将有助于更加全面、深刻理解内外动机影响青少年记忆的独特规律和机制, 为科学提升青少年动机和记忆效果提供研究证据。     

Examining the relationship between recreational sport participation and intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and amotivation

This study aimed at investigating the effect of motivational dimensions proposed by Pelletier, et al. in 1995, both on sport participation levels and on intention for continuing participation among adult recreational sport participants. Two hundred and fifty-seven adult individuals, who reported participation in some type of sport and physical activity, completed the Sport Motivation Scale and a scale measuring intention. The study provided evidence to suggest that increased motivation leads to increased participation. Amotivation significantly decreased from the least to the most frequent participant groups, while both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation followed the reverse pattern. The results also indicated that increased intrinsic motivation to gain knowledge and accomplishment and extrinsic motivation (introjected regulation) are positively correlated with individuals' intentions to continue participation, while amotivation is negatively related. These results provide limited support for the self-determination theory. Implications for sport participation promotion are discussed.     

The effects of personal control,competence, and extrinsic reward systems on intrinsic motivation

A review of the literature revealed that the effects of personal control on intrinsic motivation had not been directly investigated, that the interaction of competence and personal control had not been investigated, and that studies comparing the effects of contingent versus noncontingent reward systems on intrinsic motivation had produced conflicting results and conclusions. A study was designed and conducted using a direct manipulation of personal control over performance as well as the usual reward manipulation. It was found that personal control over performance was a very important determinant of intrinsic motivation but that the type of reward system did not affect intrinsic motivation. An interaction between personal control over performance and competence was found such that both performance and personal control over performance had to be high in order for intrinsic motivation to be high.     

削弱效应是否存在：工作场所中内外动机的关系

外部动机是否削弱内部动机？已有研究结论并不一致。澄清这一问题的有效途径是对外部动机的恰当分类。研究以165名企业员工为研究对象, 针对动机的动态性特点, 采用两时点纵向研究的方法, 以自我决定理论对外部动机的分类为基础, 探讨3种不同内化程度的外部动机--外在动机、内射动机和认同动机与内部动机的关系及外部动机内化程度与自主支持的关系。研究结果表明：(1)控制性、非内化的外部动机, 即外在动机和内射动机削弱员工的内部动机; (2)自主性、内化的外部动机, 即认同动机不会削弱员工的内部动机, 而是促进和保护内部动机; (3)自主支持环境促进员工外部动机内化的程度(即认同动机的增加)。最后, 研究对所取得结果的管理意义进行了讨论。     

Decomposing intrinsic and extrinsic motivation for exercise: Application to stages of motivational readiness

ObjectivesTwo studies were conducted to evaluate the reliability and predictive validity of measures of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation for exercise, and to examine differences in motivation as a function of stage of motivational readiness for exercise.DesignA cross-sectional design was employed in study one, and a longitudinal design was used in study two.MethodsIn study one, 184 healthy college students completed instruments to measure motivation and exercise stage. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations were factor analyzed into subscales and validated in study two on a second sample of college students (n=220) by analyzing shifts in endorsement of motivation subscales from the beginning to end of the academic term.ResultsIn both samples, intrinsic motivation for exercise was most highly endorsed in maintenance and lowest in contemplation stage. All extrinsic motivation subscales except tangible rewards were also most highly endorsed in maintenance compared to other stages. In study two, students in activity classes (n=72) endorsed both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation more than those in lecture classes (n=70). Relative to patterns of physical activity, intrinsic motivation was greater than extrinsic motivation for the continually active group, and decreased for the continually inactive group. Exercise maintenance was fostered by greater intrinsic relative to extrinsic motivation.ConclusionIntrinsic and extrinsic motivation can be decomposed into meaningful subfactors that are differentially related to exercise adoption and maintenance.     

On the intrinsic and extrinsic motivation of free/libre/open source (FLOSS) developers

Motivation in the context of open source software may be seen as fundamentally different due to the presence of unpaid programmers, implicit rather than explicit forms of control and a different methodology for software development. Since software development is a creative task, the motivation of open source programmers can be compared to individuals in creative industries (Caves 2002). This paper summarizes the important trends in the research on motivation in open source and identifies variables that should be included in future research. Specifically, the current literature favors a taxonomy that considers two components of motivation—intrinsic (e.g., fun, flow, learning, community) and extrinsic (e.g., financial rewards, improving future job prospects, signaling quality). I make a case for incorporating both elements in developing an integrative theory about developer motivation. Three elements are identified as being unique to FLOSS development-diversity of project structures, co-existence of companies and communities and co-existence of creative and commercial elements. The important empirical evidence on FLOSS developer motivation is presented and analyzed. Four factors are identified as important mitigating and moderating factors in the conversation surrounding developer motivation- financial incentives, nature of task, group size and group structure. The role of these factors on developer motivation is discussed. He is passionately interested in all aspects of open source software development and has written extensively on the topic. He is also the author of two books on E-Commerce.     

A validity generalization procedure to test relations between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and influence tactics

The relations of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation with use of consultative, legitimating, and pressure influence tactics were examined using validity generalization procedures. 5 to 7 field studies with cumulative samples exceeding 800 were used to test each relationship. Significance was found for relation between agents' intrinsic motivation and their use of consultative influence tactics and agents' extrinsic motivation and their use of legitimating influence tactics.     

Profiles of intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: A person-centered approach to motivation and achievement in middle school

The present study was designed to identify and evaluate naturally-occurring combinations of intrinsic and extrinsic motivations. Cluster analysis revealed four distinct motivational profiles based on a sample of middle-school students (N = 343): those with high levels of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivations (high quantity), low levels of both types of motivation (low quantity), high intrinsic coupled with low extrinsic motivation (good quality) and low intrinsic coupled with high extrinsic motivation (poor quality). Across two time points, students in the good quality cluster received higher grades than their peers in other clusters with poorer quality motivation, even if that motivation was present in high quantities. An examination of shifts in motivational profiles over the course of a school year revealed an intriguing balance of stability and change. Consistent with variable-centered research, movement tended to be away from the good quality and high quantity clusters and toward the poor quality and low quantity clusters.