Fluency,phonology and morphology: a response to the commentaries on becoming literate in different languages

We are delighted at the range of issues raised in the commentaries. The breadth and scope of these serve to make obvious the need for an effective evidence base across languages if we are to optimize the teaching of reading. Our psycholinguistic grain size theory clearly did not pay sufficient attention to the role of morphology in decoding, nor to fluency. The commentaries also highlight the need for considering in more depth the intimate links between phonological and morphological development. All issues raised were highly germane to generating an adequate theoretical framework for the cross‐language collection of relevant evidence in different countries.     

Learning of letter names follows similar principles across languages: Evidence from Hebrew

Letter names play an important role in early literacy. Previous studies of letter name learning have examined the Latin alphabet. The current study tested learners of Hebrew, comparing their patterns of performance and types of errors with those of English learners. We analyzed letter-naming data from 645 Israeli children who had not begun formal reading instruction: a younger group (mean age 5 years 2 months) and an older group (mean age 6 years 2 months). Children's errors often involved letters with similar shapes or letters adjacent to one another in the alphabet. Most Hebrew letter names are not very similar to one another phonologically, and there were fewer phonologically based confusions than in English. We found both general frequency effects and frequency effects that reflected the letters in individual children's names. On average, girls knew more letter names than did boys. The results suggest that letter name learning follows similar principles across languages.     

PPS/SPS: similar but different

Pupil personnel services and student personnel services are compared on organizational patterns, professionalization problems, and relationship to counseling. Both entities have unique problems but are not without commonalities. Student personnel workers fare better in organizational patterning and counseling, while pupil personnel workers have fewer professionalization problems. Future prospects for both services have inherent promise.     

Identical words are read differently in different languages

It is hypothesized that written languages differ in the preferred grain size of units that emerge during reading acquisition. Smaller units (graphemes, phonemes) are thought to play a dominant role in relatively consistent orthographies (e.g., German), whereas larger units (bodies, rhymes) are thought to be more important in relatively inconsistent orthographies (e.g., English). This hypothesis was tested by having native English and German speakers read identical words and nonwords in their respective languages (zoo-Zoo, sand-Sand, etc.). Although the English participants exhibited stronger body-rhyme effects, the German participants exhibited a stronger length effect for words and nonwords. Thus, identical items were processed differently in different orthographies. These results suggest that orthographic consistency determines not only the relative contribution of orthographic versus phonological codes within a given orthography, but also the preferred grain size of units that are likely to be functional during reading.     

Uncertainty reduction in different languages through reading comprehension

In an exploratory study into the feasibility of constructing a multilingual reading comprehension test, parallel cloze tests were constructed in Czech, English, French, German, and Polish. Groups of children between the ages of eight and fourteen were tested on the version in their own mother tongue, in Prague (Czechoslovakia), in Saskatoon and Prince Albert (Canada), and in Paris (France), Frankfurt (Germany), and Warsaw (Poland). Test performance was assessed by means of a method which estimates the child's contribution to overall language redundancy. Results suggest that the method is both reliable and valid and has potential for the assessment of bilinguality of reading comprehension.     

World-Wide Web survey research: Benefits, potential problems, and solutions

The World-Wide Web presents survey researchers with an unprecedented tool for the collection of data. The costs in terms of both time and money for publishing a survey on the Web are low compared with costs associated with conventional surveying methods. The data entry stage is eliminated for the survey administrator, and software can ensure that the data acquired from participants is free from common entry errors. Importantly, Web surveys can interactively provide participants with customized feedback. These features come at a price—ensuring that appropriately written software manages the data collection process. Although the potential for missing data, unacceptable responses, duplicate submissions, and Web abuse exist, one can take measures when creating the survey software to minimize the frequency and negative consequences of such incidents.     

Lamps,cubes, balls and walls: Zeno problems and solutions

Various arguments have been put forward to show that Zeno-like paradoxes are still with us. A particularly interesting one involves a cube composed of colored slabs that geometrically decrease in thickness. We first point out that this argument has already been nullified by Paul Benacerraf. Then we show that nevertheless a further problem remains, one that withstands Benacerraf’s critique. We explain that the new problem is isomorphic to two other Zeno-like predicaments: a problem described by Alper and Bridger in 1998 and a modified version of the problem that Benardete introduced in 1964. Finally, we present a solution to the three isomorphic problems.     

Management and treatment of stalkers: problems, options, and solutions

Legal sanctions alone are often ineffective in preventing stalking because, in the absence of treatment, the fundamental problems driving the stalker remain unresolved. Criminal justice interventions can be problematic because of difficulties in framing anti-stalking legislation and inconsistencies in their application. Civil remedies in the form of restraining orders may be ineffective or counterproductive. Treatment of stalkers involves pharmacotherapy when mental illness is present, but the mainstays of treatment for non-psychotic stalkers are programmes of psychological intervention. These depend on accurate assessment of the risks inherent in stalking and on the identification of psychological deficits, needs, and responsivity factors specific to the individual. Treatment can then be tailored to suit the stalker, thereby enhancing therapeutic efficacy. Developing a framework for identifying the risk factors and shaping the delivery of treatment is crucial. Two service innovations developed specifically to work with stalkers are presented as options to overcome current management deficiencies.     

A six-factor structure of personality-descriptive adjectives: solutions from psycholexical studies in seven languages

Standard psycholexical studies of personality structure have produced a similar 6-factor solution in 7 languages (Dutch, French, German, Hungarian, Italian, Korean, Polish). The authors report the content of these personality dimensions and interpret them as follows: (a) a variant of Extraversion, defined by sociability and liveliness (though not by bravery and toughness); (b) a variant of Agreeableness, defined by gentleness, patience, and agreeableness (but also including anger and ill temper at its negative pole); (c) Conscientiousness (emphasizing organization and discipline rather than moral conscience); (d) Emotionality (containing anxiety, vulnerability, sentimentality, lack of bravery, and lack of toughness, but not anger or ill temper); (e) Honesty-Humility; (f) Intellect/Imagination/Unconventionality. A potential reorganization of the Big Five factor structure is discussed.     

On the representation of multiple languages in the brain: old problems and new directions

This paper has attempted to show that when the relevant literature is critically scrutinized there is very little evidence for the idea that the right hemisphere participates in multiple languages in any way significantly different from the case of a single language. We have seen that most of the clinical data support the simple notion that the left hemisphere controls the first and subsequent languages to the same degree. The experimental data are full of contradictions, but many of the claims are invalid due to various methodological and analytical problems explained previously. It is suggested that future research concentrate on finer-grained questions than simply whether a language is left lateralized or not. These questions should make connections with other known neurological and neuropsychological facts. Of primary interest is obtaining converging evidence on the hypothesis of differential cerebral territories within the left hemisphere of bilinguals for different languages. In conclusion, we would be wise to consider the bilingual as a very rich potential source for testing various hypotheses about linguistic and neurolinguistic organization. But we should not lose the opportunity to test both more general and more specific hypotheses to which the multilingual gives us access. If treated with care the multilingual will tell us much, even though he may speak in many tongues.     

Stroop范式中不同语言条件下的双语优势效应

目的:采用Stroop范式探讨不同语言条件下的双语优势效应。方法:两个实验均为2(被试类型)x 3(色词一致性)的混合实验设计,被试为熟练双语者和非熟练双语者。结果:(1)L1条件下熟练双语者的Stroop效应量小于非熟练双语者,L2条件下无显著差异。(2)熟练双语者在两个实验条件下的平均反应时均小于非熟练双语者,L2条件下的易化效应量显著大于非熟练双语者。结论:(1)熟练双语者在L1条件下的抑制控制能力好于非熟练双语者,体现了"双语优势效应";(2)熟练双语者在Stroop干扰任务中可能比非熟练双语者具有更好的信息监控能力。     

Becoming verbal: autism,trauma and playfulness

This paper will describe work in progress with a boy who was 3.4 years old at the time of referral. At this time he had no speech and there were a number of marked autistic features in his presentation, although no formal diagnosis had been made. He had suffered the trauma of a life-threatening illness requiring major medical interventions at the age of 5 months and again at 18 months, which may have been the precipitating factor for his disturbance. He is from an intact family with an older sister and a younger brother and no apparent significant family pathology. During the course of his treatment - which has now been on-going for nearly three years - he has acquired a capacity for play and has become very talkative. Using extensive clinical material, the paper will explore the factors which may have contributed to his improvement, especially the modifications in technique introduced by the therapist in order to make contact with this little boy. Special attention will be given to the role of playfulness, as introduced by the therapist, with particular reference to the way in which this may facilitate the emergence and expression of aggressive feelings and phantasies. The links with the development of the capacity for speech will be explored.     

The effects of stating problems in bilingual students' first and second languages on solving mathematical word problems

Researchers have suggested that among bilinguals, solving word problems in mathematics is influenced by linguistic factors (K. Durkin & B. Shire, 1991; L. Verschaffel, B. Greer, & E. De Corte, 2000). Others have suggested that students exhibit a strong tendency to exclude real-world constraints in solving mathematics word problems (L. Verschaffel, E. De Corte, & S. Lasure, 1994). In the present study, the authors explored the effects of stating word problems in either Filipino or English on how Filipino-English bilingual students solved word problems in which the solution required the application of real-world knowledge. The authors asked bilingual students to solve word problems in either their first or second language. For some of the word problems, real-life constraints prevented straightforward application of mathematical procedures. The authors analyzed the students' solutions to determine whether the language of the word problems affected the tendency to apply real-life constraints in the solution. Results showed that the bilingual students (a) rarely considered real-life constraints in their solutions, (b) were more successful in understanding and solving word problems that were stated in their first language, and (c) were more likely to experience failure in finding a solution to problems stated in their second language. The results are discussed in terms of the relationship between linguistic and mathematical problem-solving processes among bilinguals.     

Space-based visual attention models and object selection: Constraints,problems, and possible solutions

Summary One of the functions of visual attention is the selection of object information. This seems to be in line with an influential group of attentional models that assume that attentional selection is space based. These models assume that the selection of an object in vision is realized by selection of the location of that object. Whether this relatively simple idea of space-based attention and the corresponding, more elaborated space-based models are sufficient to handle selected constraints and problems of object selection is the main issue of this article. The first step toward an answer is to describe the common computational structure of space-based attentional models. Two model classes will be distinguished: capacity-limited models (e.g., Treisman, 1988; LaBerge & Brown, 1989) and models that do not assume a capacity limitation (e. g., Van der Heijden, 1992). Next, three kinds of task and data on object selection are introduced that are especially challenging for space-based models. The first type of data refers to experiments that require selection between overlapping objects. The second type of data concerns the influence of early perceptual grouping - a strong object-defining factor- on late response competition, and the third type consists of a selection task in which a high-level (semantic) attribute defines an object and controls selection. In all three cases, problems of space-based models are analyzed and possible solutions are sketched. Finally, a brief evaluative summary is given.     

Interpersonal problems and personality: using three factor solutions

Attempting to bridge the gap between psychotherapy research on interpersonal discord and personality research on factors of normal and abnormal personality, the present study uses personality factors to predict interpersonal problems. Eysenck's P-E-N (Psychoticism-Extraversion-Neuroticism) model of personality and its correspondent index, the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire-Revised is used as a schema from which to conceptualize and measure personality. Horowitz's Inventory of Interpersonal Problems, which includes six problems commonly reported by psychotherapy patients at intake (hard to be assertive, hard to be submissive, hard to be intimate, hard to be sociable, too controlling, and too responsible), was used as an index of interpersonal distress. Hierarchical multiple regression, in which the most significant predictor was entered into the equation first, indicate significant prediction of various problems by the personality factors considered here. Results are discussed in the context of interpersonal theory.     

War,Peace, and Promise-Making: Becoming a Late-Life Activist

In this article I reflect on the effect of two wars on my life: World War II and the war in Viet Nam. Then I discuss the complexities involved in relinquishing the role of silent bystander in the analytic space as well as on the world stage through an examination of the concept of promise-making. A clinical example illustrates how the complicated and demanding process of making and keeping promises affected a therapeutic process.     

Attributional inference across cultures: similar automatic attributions and different controlled corrections

Five studies examined the automatic and controlled components of attributional inference in U.S. and East Asian (EA) samples. Studies 1 through 3 used variations of the "anxious woman" paradigm, manipulating the inferential goal (dispositional or situational) and the normative impact of situational constraint information (discounting or augmenting). In each study, U.S. and EA participants under cognitive load produced strong automatic attributions to the focus of their inferential goal (dispositional or situational). Compared with the U.S. cognitive load participants, U.S. no load participants corrected their attributions according to the normative rules of inference. In contrast, EA no load participants corrected in the direction of situational causality, even when the specific content of the situational information provided should have promoted stronger dispositional inferences. Studies 4 and 5 examined and ruled out alternative accounts. Results are discussed in terms of a situational causality heuristic present in EA individuals.