Racial microaffirmations as a response to racial microaggressions: Exploring risk and protective factors

The urgency of the Black Lives Matter movement, and societal inequities emerging amid the COVID-19 pandemic call researchers to better understand the implications of racism in the lives of People of Color. In this paper, we utilize Critical Race Theory (CRT) to extend theorizing on the concept of racial microaffirmations as a response to everyday systemic racism—racial microaggressions. We reframe the psychological concept of risk and protective factors to illustrate the relationship between racial microaggressions and microaffirmations. Our findings identify types of racial microaffirmations experienced by Students of Color at a public four-year institution in California. We explore how these microaffirmations are experienced and the effects they have on the students well-being.     

The Racial and Ethnic Microaggressions Scale (REMS): construction, reliability, and validity

Racial microaggressions are subtle statements and behaviors that unconsciously communicate denigrating messages to people of color. In recent years, a theoretical taxonomy and subsequent qualitative studies have introduced the types of microaggressions that people of color experience. In the present study, college- and Internet-based samples of African Americans, Latina/os, Asian Americans, and multiracial participants (N = 661) were used to develop and validate the Racial and Ethnic Microaggression Scale (REMS). In Study 1, an exploratory principal-components analyses (n = 443) yielded a 6-factor model: (a) Assumptions of Inferiority, (b) Second-Class Citizen and Assumptions of Criminality, (c) Microinvalidations, (d) Exoticization/Assumptions of Similarity, (e) Environmental Microaggressions, and (f) Workplace and School Microaggressions, with a Cronbach's alpha of .912 for the overall model and subscales ranging from .783 to .873. In Study 2, a confirmatory factor analysis (n = 218) supported the 6-factor model with a Cronbach's alpha of .892. Further analyses indicate that the REMS is a valid measure of racial microaggressions, as evidenced by high correlations with existing measures of racism and participants' feedback. Future research directions and implications for practice are discussed.     

Reliability and validity of a new scale to measure prejudice: The GRISMS

The goal of the present research was to assess the reliability and validity of the fiftyitem Modified Godfrey-Richman ISM Scale (M-GRISMS). The sample consisted of seventy-one female and sixty male introductory psychology students. Test items included various ethnic groups (Racism subscale), religious groups (Religion subscale), and the Heterosexist and Sexist subscales. Each of these was parsed into various subcategories, e.g., the Racism subscale assessed attitudes toward African-Americans, Asian-Americans, European-Americans, Hispanics, and Native Americans. The final version of the M-GRISMS (the M-GRISMS-M) was found to be highly reliable and valid. Eight independent factors traversed two or more “isms.”     

Reliability and validity of a new scale to measure prejudice: The GRISMS

The goal of the present research was to assess the reliability and validity of the fiftyitem Modified Godfrey-Richman ISM Scale (M-GRISMS). The sample consisted of seventy-one female and sixty male introductory psychology students. Test items included various ethnic groups (Racism subscale), religious groups (Religion subscale), and the Heterosexist and Sexist subscales. Each of these was parsed into various subcategories, e.g., the Racism subscale assessed attitudes toward African-Americans, Asian-Americans, European-Americans, Hispanics, and Native Americans. The final version of the M-GRISMS (the M-GRISMS-M) was found to be highly reliable and valid. Eight independent factors traversed two or more “isms.”     

The attention to body shape scale: a new measure of body focus

An abnormal degree of attention to one's body shape has been implicated in the development and maintenance of eating pathology. This article reports on three preliminary reliability and validity studies of the Attention to Body Shape Scale (ABS). Although brief, the ABS was found to be internally consistent and relatively stable over 2 weeks for both women and men. As expected, women were more body-focused on the ABS than were men. Preliminary validation studies on college women had encouraging results. Lending evidence of convergent validity, the ABS correlated with measures of eating pathology and dietary restraint. Moreover, although the ABS correlated with a measure of general-appearance orientation, regression analyses showed that the former was more closely linked than the latter to eating pathology. As evidence of discriminant validity, the ABS failed to correlate with dysphoria, body weight, or the tendency to eat in response to emotional or environmental pressures. As predicted by theory, high scores on the ABS were associated with body-image distortion. However, contrary to predictions, the ABS failed to moderate the impact of induced anxiety on body image on two of three measures. The implications of these findings and suggestions for future work are discussed.     

Assessing White Racial Identity: The White Racial Consciousness Development Scale (WRCDS)

Prior to the ready availability of Helms and Carter's (1990) White Racial Identity Attitude Scale (RIAS-W), Claney and Parker (1989) developed the White Racial Consciousness Development Scale (WRCDS). Using this device they reported finding a curvilinear relationship between the stage of racial identity or consciousness of Whites and their comfort with African American persons. Recently, the WRCDS seems to be gaining acceptance by scholars working in the area of White racial identity. Data, however, are presented suggesting that the WRCDS lacks adequate reliability and concurrent validity and that the findings and future use of the instrument should be questioned.     

The warpy thoughts scale: a new 20-item instrument to measure dysfunctional attitudes

Cognitive theories of psychopathology propose that specific negative cognitive schema held by individuals can increase their likelihood of experiencing depressive episodes. While it has been argued that such dysfunctional attitudes are state measures that occur primarily during periods of depression, a range of research has supported the view that holding dysfunctional attitudes is ongoing, persisting prior to and following depressive episodes. To date, the need for a parsimonious measure of dysfunctional attitudes has not been well addressed. Using data provided by 4545 participants in a free on-line cognitive behavioural therapy program, MoodGYM, we have developed the Warpy Thoughts Scale (WTS), a 20-item instrument measuring dysfunctional attitudes. This scale provides 3 first order factors (Relationships, Achievements and Entitlements) and a higher order factor, Warpy Thoughts, from which a Warpy Thoughts score can be obtained. Confirmatory factor analyses on this model indicated that it provides robust results for men and women and for individuals in a wide range of ages. WTS scores were moderately correlated with levels of depressive and anxiety symptoms (0.39 and 0.40, respectively) and explained up to one-fifth of the variance of these mental health measures. Further validation of the WTS against other measures of dysfunctional thoughts is required.     

The Gender Congruence and Life Satisfaction Scale (GCLS): Development and validation of a scale to measure outcomes from transgender health services

Background: It is vital that the treatment offered at transgender health services can be evaluated to ensure a high quality of care. However, the tools currently used to evaluate treatment at transgender health services are limited by mainly focusing on mental health or because they have been developed for binary transgender people only. This study therefore aimed to develop and validate a tool that addresses these limitations. The Gender Congruence and Life Satisfaction Scale (GCLS) was developed through reviewing the literature, conducting interviews with transgender people, and holding discussions with experts working in transgender healthcare. An initial pool of items was developed and feedback on these was obtained. The tool was then validated.

Method: For the validation of the tool, a total of 789 participants (451 transgender [171 transgender females, 147 transgender males, 133 people identifying as non-binary], and 338 cisgender [254 females, 84 males]) were recruited from the United Kingdom to test the factor structure and validity of the GCLS.

Results: Exploratory factor analysis retained 38 items which formed seven subscales (psychological functioning; genitalia; social gender role recognition; physical and emotional intimacy; chest; other secondary sex characteristics; and life satisfaction). These seven subscales were found to have good internal consistency and convergent validity. The GCLS was also found to be capable of discriminating between groups (e.g., people who have and have not undergone gender affirming medical interventions). Transgender and cisgender subscale norms are provided for the GCLS.

Conclusion: The GCLS is a suitable tool to use with the transgender population to measure health-related outcomes for both clinical and research purposes.     

The Unidimensional Relationship Closeness Scale (URCS): reliability and validity evidence for a new measure of relationship closeness

A fundamental dimension along which all social and personal relationships vary is closeness. The Unidimensional Relationship Closeness Scale (URCS) is a 12-item self-report scale measuring the closeness of social and personal relationships. The reliability and validity of the URCS were assessed with college dating couples (N = 192), female friends and strangers (N = 330), friends (N = 170), and family members (N = 155). The results show that the scale is unidimensional, with high reliability across relationship types (M α = .96). Evidence consistent with validity included substantial within-couple agreement for the romantic couples (intraclass correlation = .41), substantial friend-stranger discrimination for the female friends (η2 = .82), and measurement invariance across relationship types. Evidence of convergent and divergent validity was obtained for inclusion of other in the self and relational satisfaction, respectively.     

Sibling attachment: The development of a new infant-based measure (SPPIR)

This paper describes a new infant-based measure for assessing infant attachment to a sibling during a modified strange situation procedure. Research has demonstrated that young siblings often form a special relationship and that they prefer to interact with one another rather than with an unfamiliar peer. Also it has been shown that older siblings can respond appropriately to the distress of an infant. Research on relationships has moved from frequency counts of discrete behaviours towards more global measures of the ways in which behaviour is organized. These have tended to focus upon the older child as caregiver or the influence of the mother-child relationship on child-child interaction during the strange situation. The main findings of previous studies are presented. This paper describes a new method for measuring sibling attachment. Advantages of the new scoring system over previous procedures are that it utilizes ethological attachment theory, it is infant-based, it allows for a variety of infant reactions to reunion with the older sibling, and it focuses on overall patterns of behaviour rather than tallies of frequences.     

Seemingly Harmless Racial Communications Are Not So Harmless: Racial Microaggressions Lead to Suicidal Ideation by Way of Depression Symptoms

Racial microaggressions, a contemporary form of subtle discrimination that occurs in everyday interactions, are associated with a variety of negative mental health outcomes. Research has not extended the connection between racial microaggressions and negative mental health to include suicide risk. Given the well‐known association between negative mental health outcomes and suicide risk, the current study examined whether racial microaggressions predicted suicidal ideation through depression symptoms among 405 young adults of color. Depression symptoms mediated the relationship between racial microaggressions and suicidal ideation. This is the first study to associate racial microaggressions to suicide risk. Societal and clinical implications are discussed.     

The Impact of Racial Microaggressions on Mental Health: Counseling Implications for Clients of Color

This study examined the relationship between racial microaggressions (subtle and unintentional forms of racial discrimination) and mental health. Results from a large sample (N = 506) indicated that higher frequencies of racial microaggressions negatively predicted participants' mental health and that racial microaggressions were significantly correlated with depressive symptoms and negative affect. Differences in the types of microaggressions experienced by various racial groups (Asian, Latina/o, Black, White, and multiracial) and counseling implications are discussed.     

The development of a scale to measure cognitive distortions in bulimia

The Bulimia Cognitive Distortions Scale (BCDS) was developed to measure irrational beliefs and cognitive distortions associated with bulimia. The final 25-item scale was found to have excellent internal consistency with high item to total correlations and a coefficient alpha of .97. Factor analysis revealed two clear factors measuring cognitive distortions related to automatic eating behaviors and to physical appearance. Data attesting to the convergent and divergent validity of the BCDS are also presented. With 110 subjects (55 bulimics, 55 controls), a discriminant analysis revealed the BCDS to be the only significant variable in predicting group membership, correctly classifying 93.6% of all subjects. The BCDS was also predictive of severity of bulimia as measured by the frequency of binge eating episodes. The potential of the BCDS as both a diagnostic and research instrument is discussed.     

Measuring racial essentialism in the genomic era: The genetic essentialism scale for race (GESR)

Current Psychology - Racial essentialism is the belief that races are biologically distinct groups with defining core “essences,” a notion associated with increased social distance and...     

The Indian superstition scale: creating a measure to assess Indian superstitions

Despite humans’ capacity for rational thought, they are not immune to superstitions. Superstitions are strongly tied to cultural practices, especially in India. Although 17% of the world’s population resides in India, Indian culture is understudied, and there have not been sufficient attempts to understand Indian superstitions in a scientific manner from a psychometric standpoint. By creating a proper superstition measurement for the Indian population, we can better understand how Indians think and behave. The goal of the present research is to create a superstition measure specific to Indian culture. The results reveal 18 items reflecting Indian superstitions that can be generalised across contemporary India.     

The relationship between self-consciousness and interpersonal effectiveness and a new scale to measure individual differences in self-consciousness

The purpose of this research was to explore the relationship between a dispositional tendency to become self-conscious and interpersonal effectiveness. It was hypothesized that excessive self-consciousness may be a significant component of social inadequacy and this prediction was confirmed in two experiments. In both studies, maladaptive self-consciousness was measured using a new scale and the development and validity for the test are reported. In the first study, the social skills of persons high or low in maladaptive self-consciousness were assessed using sociometric ratings made by acquaintances. Persons high in maladaptive self-consciousness were perceived by their peers as more socially inadequate. The second study was conducted in a controlled laboratory setting and involved placing persons high or low in maladaptive self-consciousness in a dyadic interaction with a randomly selected partner. Following this, both participants were asked to report their feelings and reactions during the interaction and to make behavioral ratings of their partner. Trained observers also made behavioral ratings of both interactants. It was hypothesized that maladaptive self-consciousness would be associated with ineffective social behavior, reduced sensitivity to one's partner, and a heightened self-perception of inadequacy. These predictions were confirmed and the implications of the relationship between maladaptive self-consciousness and social inadequacy are discussed.     

The balanced measure of psychological needs (BMPN) scale: An alternative domain general measure of need satisfaction

Psychological need constructs have received increased attention within self-determination theory research. Unfortunately, the most widely used need-satisfaction measure, the Basic Psychological Needs Scale (BPNS; Gagné in Motiv Emot 27:199?C223, 2003), has been found to be problematic (Johnston and Finney in Contemp Educ Psychol 35:280?C296, 2010). In the current study, we formally describe an alternate measure, the Balanced Measure of Psychological Needs (BMPN). We explore the factor structure of student responses to both the BPNS and the BMPN, followed by an empirical comparison of the BPNS to the BMPN as predictors of relevant outcomes. For both scales, we tested a model specifying three latent need factors (autonomy, competence, and relatedness) and two latent method factors (satisfaction and dissatisfaction). By specifying and comparing a series of nested confirmatory factor analytic models, we examine the theoretical structure of the need satisfaction variables and produce evidence for convergent and discriminant validity of the posited constructs. The results of our examination suggest that the three need variables should not be combined into one general need factor and may have separate satisfaction and dissatisfaction dimensions. Our model comparisons also suggest the BMPN may be an improved instrument for SDT researchers.     

The worker scale: Developing a measure to explain gender differences in behavioral self-handicapping

Research has consistently found that men engage in more behavioral self-handicapping than do women. We first review evidence suggesting that these gender differences result from women placing more importance on displaying effort than do men. We then present the results of two studies seeking to develop measures of beliefs about effort that might explain these gender differences in behavioral self-handicapping. Women, across a wide range of measures, placed more importance on effort than did men. However, only a new measure of more personalized effort beliefs, dubbed the Worker scale, uniquely explained gender differences in dispositional tendency to behaviorally self-handicap. The Worker scale also predicted academic performance, consistent with the notion that these effort beliefs would predict engagement in actual behavioral self-handicaps that undermine performance.