Why do we listen to music? A uses and gratifications analysis

Four 'uses and gratifications' studies investigated peoples' reasons for listening to music (Study 1); and whether these reasons differ significantly from those associated with other leisure activities (Study 2). In Study 3, an open-ended, qualitative research design was used to investigate why people listen to music. In Study 4, a cross-sectional design was used to investigate the possibility that people of different ages might listen to music for different reasons. Findings showed that there are a number of reasons why participants listen to music, comparison of which indicated that participants listen to music primarily to manage/regulate their moods. Comparison with other leisure activities indicated that for the most part, listening to music was rated better than other leisure activities at serving an individual's different needs. This versatility may explain why music is so important to people. Evidence was also found to suggest that the reasons for listening to music may change as people grow older.     

The importance of leisure as a means of coping with work related stress: An exploratory study

Work stress researchers have long recognized the importance of coping in the work stress relationship and there is now a growing body of literature exploring the measurement and classification of coping strategies. While a range of coping activities have been explored one area that has received a less than complete treatment is the importance individuals give to leisure as a means of coping with work related stress. This research set out to explore the important reasons individual attach to leisure as a means of coping with work stress. The sample was made up of 695 principals and deputy principals from secondary schools throughout New Zealand. Analysis revealed that there were two reasons why leisure is important as a means of coping; one because of its active/challenging nature and the other because of its more passive/recuperative nature. The items that made up these two broad categories were then further explored in relation to a number of measures of well-being. This involved the use of sequential tree analysis and the sequential unfolding of the different reasons. The pattern to emerge suggested that 'being totally focused' was an important reason for engaging in active/challenging leisure whereas a more complex profile emerged for using passive/recuperative leisure activities. The significance of these findings is discussed in terms of intervention strategies and the role of leisure within work stress research.     

The paradox of happiness: Why are we not doing what we know makes us happy?

Achieving and maintaining happiness can be difficult, especially when people are not engaging in the activities they know facilitate it. ‘Flow’ activities require clear rules, challenge, a high investment of energy, and have been shown to promote long-term happiness better than low investment, passive activities. Do people know this? In two studies, we found that, despite recognizing that flow activities are more likely to facilitate happiness, people nevertheless participated in passive leisure significantly more often in a typical week. Participants rated passive activities as being significantly more enjoyable, requiring less effort, and being less daunting to get started than flow activities. Participants’ engagement in flow activities was significantly predicted by how enjoyable the activities were perceived to be, whereas how daunting those activities were rated predicted non-engagement. Passive activity engagement was only significantly predicted by enjoyment. Suggestions for enabling people to rise above the barriers to flow activities are offered.     

控制和外界客体社会效价对身体拥有感的影响

研究采用运动橡胶手错觉范式,操纵了“控制”和“社会效价”两个变量,通过行为实验探讨了控制和社会效价对身体拥有感的影响。结果发现,与“被动控制”条件相比,“主动控制”条件产生了更强的拥有感; 与“不利”条件相比,“有利”条件产生了更强的拥有感。且“控制”和“社会效价”的交互作用显著:无论哪种控制条件,有利条件下的拥有感都显著高于不利条件下的拥有感; 无论哪种效价条件,主动控制条件下的拥有感均显著高于被动控制条件下的拥有感。该结果表明,控制和社会效价是产生身体拥有感的条件。研究结果为提高假肢佩戴者对假肢的心理接纳程度提供了有益的训练途径。     

Optimal experience in work and leisure

Followed 78 adult workers for 1 week with the experience sampling method. (This method randomly samples self-reports throughout the day.) The main question was whether the quality of experience was more influenced by whether a person was at work or at leisure or more influenced by whether a person was in flow (i.e., in a condition of high challenges and skills). Results showed that all the variables measuring the quality of experience, except for relaxation and motivation, are more affected by flow than by whether the respondent is working or in leisure. Moreover, the great majority of flow experiences are reported when working, not when in leisure. Regardless of the quality of experience, however, respondents are more motivated in leisure than in work. But individuals more motivated in flow than in apathy reported more positive experiences in work. Results suggest implications for improving the quality of everyday life.     

Workaholism as Discretionary Time Investment at Work: An Experience-Sampling Study

Adopting an operational definition of workaholism as discretionary investment of considerable time at work, the purpose of the present study was to test hypotheses regarding the cognitive aspect of workaholism, as well as the positive and negative/addictive views of this construct. The study employed an experience‐sampling method (ESM), using a sample of 65 full‐time employees who completed the ESM forms at four random times during the day for one week. Results indicated that workaholism was associated with continued cognitive engagement with work, accompanied by a preference for work over leisure activity and higher positive affect during work activity than during leisure activity. No significant differences were found between workaholics and non‐workaholics with regard to the likelihood of performing work‐related activities during leisure activity, or in the levels of physical discomfort and negative affect during the weekend. These results highlight the utility of an operational framework for studying the variety of workaholism correlates. Theoretical and applied implications are discussed. A partir d’une définition opérationnelle de l’addiction au travail comme étant un investissement sans contrôle d’un temps considérable consacré au travail, cette recherche s’est donné comme objectif de mettre à l’épreuve des hypothèses relatives à la dimension cognitive de l’addiction au travail, ainsi que les aspects positifs et négatifs (addictifs) de ce concept. Cette recherche a exploité la méthode de l’échantillonnage des expériences (ESM) à partir d’un échantillon composé de 65 salariés à plein‐temps qui ont rempli la feuille de recueil des données quatre fois par jour au hasard pendant une semaine. Les résultats ont montré que l’addiction au travail était liée à un engagement cognitif permanent vis‐à‐vis du travail, associéà une plus forte attirance pour le travail que pour les loisirs et à un état affectif plus fortement positif lors du travail qu’à l’occasion des activités de loisirs. On n’a pas trouvé de différences significatives entre les drogués du travail et les autres en ce qui concerne la probabilité de réaliser des activités relevant du travail pendant les loisirs, ou dans le niveau d’inconfort physique et le poids des affects négatifs pendant le week‐end. Ces résultats montrent l’utilité d’un schéma opérationnel dans l’étude de la diversité des phénomènes reliés à l’addiction au travail. Les implications théoriques et pratiques sont examinées.     

Exercise after work,psychological mediators,and affect: A day-level study

In this diary study, we tested the recovery potential of exercise activities during leisure time and examined the psychological mechanisms underlying the relation between exercise activities and affect. We hypothesized that spending time on exercise activities after work will be related to subsequent affect in the evening, and that psychological detachment from work, sense of belonging, and physical self-perceptions explain why exercise activities are related to subsequent affect. One-hundred and twenty-six participants from diverse occupations completed a diary twice a day over five consecutive work days. Multilevel analyses showed that exercise activities after work were related to positive, but not to negative affect in the evening. As proposed, psychological detachment, sense of belonging, and physical self-perceptions mediated the relation between exercise activities after work and positive affect in the evening.     

Happiness in Everyday Life: The Uses of Experience Sampling

This paper uses the Experience Sampling Method data drawn from a national sample of American youth. It examines the proximal environmental factors as well as behaviors and habits that correlate to personal happiness. Momentary-level scores show that reported happiness varies significantly both by day of week and time of day. Furthermore, particular activities are associated with varying degrees of happiness. School activities rate below average scores in happiness, while social, active and passive leisure activities are above average. Particular companions also correlate to differing level of happiness. Being alone rates the lowest levels of happiness, while being with friend corresponds to the highest. Person-level averages of happiness suggest that both higher social class and age correlate with lower levels of happiness, while gender and race do not. Paradoxically, youth who spend more time in school and social activities are happier than those who spend less. Unexpectedly, students who spend more time pleasure reading report lower levels of happiness. Finally, feeling good about the self, excited, proud, sociable, active as well as being in the conditions for flow experience are the strongest predictors of trait happiness.     

Work,leisure, and psychological well-being in a sample of young adults

This study of 20 ‘white-collar’ workers aged 20–30 measured motivation, enjoyment and access to various categories of experience in both work and leisure, and examined their relationship with psychological well-being on a number of dimensions. The method used a short questionnaire, psychological scales and the innovatory ‘experience sampling methodology’ (ESM) where respondents answer questions in a diary on the receipt of a signal from a pre-programmed watch or radio pager eight times a day for 1 week. The results show, in line with other studies, that intrinsic motivation in daily life is correlated with happiness but that, not previously reported, when motivation at work is examined both extrinsic motivation and instances where a person had to do the activity but did not wish to be doing something else, i.e. ‘positive motivational change’, are correlated with positive aspects of psychological well-being, while instances where a person wanted to do the activity but wished to be doing something else, i.e. ‘negative motivational change’, correlated with negative aspects. The results also show that enjoyment in both work and leisure correlates with aspects of psychological wellbeing; and that macro ‘flow’ experiences, where high skills and high challenges are perceived as equal, are enjoyable and interesting and come primarily from work. The study also shows that categories of experience considered important for psychological well-being and deemed to come primarily from work can be obtained in leisure. The results are discussed in the context of person—situation interactions and processes, and it is advocated that these should be studied in a variety of samples.     

The relationship between interests-job incongruity and selection of avocational activity

The present paper presents two independent studies (n₁ = 240, n₂ = 66, respectively) conducted in two different countries, and which were designed to investigate the function of leisure activities for people with varying degrees of vocational congruence. The results of the studies showed similar trends and thus, provided a cross validation to the findings. Following S. Parker (The future of work and leisure. New York, Praeger, 1971), a distinction was made between extension compensation, and neutral functions for avocational activity choice, with corresponding inventories measuring each of them. Little more than a third of the people reported their leisure activities to be neutral avocations pursued for relaxation and tension release. Taken together, the results show the following trends: (1) people tend to select leisure activities congruent with their personality pattern; (2) people in congruent occupations were vocationally satisfied and conceived their preferred activities as an extension of the type of activities they do at work; (3) people in incongruent occupations are vocationally dissatisfied, and compensate for this by selecting compensatory leisure activities and they tend to show higher salience for their avocational activities. The distinction amongst the various leisure activity functions seems to be crucial for further research in selection of avocational activities; this may prove useful in counseling people to choose an appropriate leisure activity. It may especially benefit those in incongruent occupations.     

Understanding time use,stress and recovery practices among early career physicians: an exploratory study

Early career physicians (ECPs) work an average of 80 h per week, and at times may approach 24 continuous hours working. These hours, combined with a stressful work environment, and an inability to physically and psychologically detach from work make ECPs likely to experience burnout and other negative health-related consequences. This study provides insight into the stress and recovery challenges faced by ECPs in a typical hospital environment. Rich qualitative and quantitative data were gathered from participants regarding daily time usage, and recovery practices and needs. ECPs report longer working hours, less leisure time and shorter amounts of sleep than average working adults. ECPs do not participate in many resource-replenishing activities while at work, and when out of work, they tend to participate in more passive than active forms of recovery. Resource-draining activities were identified as requiring much of ECP’s nonwork time, further limiting recovery. The prevention of burnout and other negative health consequences among ECPs requires the building of a workplace and educational culture that supports regular resource replenishment. This includes the need for a curriculum of medical education that teaches ECPs to identify the signs of stress and recovery needs, and how to effectively address these needs.     

No pain, no gain: Perceptions of calorie expenditures of exercise and daily activities

Reduction in physical activity is considered a major contributor to weight problems. Increasingly, people are expending less energy in household chores but joining fitness clubs. Do people perceive ordinary daily activities to expend less energy than exercise activities using similar amounts of calories? In the present study college students were asked to evaluate the calorie expenditure of 30 physical activities (i.e., exercises and household tasks). The household tasks were matched (in terms of caloric expenditure) to at least one exercise activity. When participants rated both exercise and daily activities, it appears that they focused on rate of caloric expenditure rather than type of activity (i.e., household task or exercise). In Study 2, college students evaluated the energy expenditure of light/leisure, moderate, and intense exercise. This emphasis concerning the benefit of intense physical activity was observed once again. College students appear to have assimilated the belief that intense physical activity expends more energy than longer sessions of lower intensity physical activity using similar amounts of calories. Perhaps one reason why people are not physically active is that they believe physical activities must be intense to be of benefit. At the same time they are automatizing household chores and, thus, become less active overall.     

No pain, no gain: Perceptions of calorie expenditures of exercise and daily activities

Reduction in physical activity is considered a major contributor to weight problems. Increasingly, people are expending less energy in household chores but joining fitness clubs. Do people perceive ordinary daily activities to expend less energy than exercise activities using similar amounts of calories? In the present study college students were asked to evaluate the calorie expenditure of 30 physical activities (i.e., exercises and household tasks). The household tasks were matched (in terms of caloric expenditure) to at least one exercise activity. When participants rated both exercise and daily activities, it appears that they focused on rate of caloric expenditure rather than type of activity (i.e., household task or exercise). In Study 2, college students evaluated the energy expenditure of light/leisure, moderate, and intense exercise. This emphasis concerning the benefit of intense physical activity was observed once again. College students appear to have assimilated the belief that intense physical activity expends more energy than longer sessions of lower intensity physical activity using similar amounts of calories. Perhaps one reason why people are not physically active is that they believe physical activities must be intense to be of benefit. At the same time they are automatizing household chores and, thus, become less active overall.     

Dynamics of Flow: A Nonlinear Perspective

The aims of this study are to consider the experience of flow from a nonlinear dynamics perspective. The processes and temporal nature of intrinsic motivation and flow, would suggest that flow experiences fluctuate over time in a dynamical fashion. Thus it can be argued that the potential for chaos is strong. The sample was composed of 20 employees (both full and part time) recruited from a number of different organizations and work backgrounds. The Experience Sampling Method (ESM) was used for data collection. Once obtained the temporal series, they were subjected to various analyses proper to the complexity theory (Visual Recurrence Analysis and Surrogate Data Analysis). Results showed that in 80% of the cases, flow presented a chaotic dynamic, in that, flow experiences delineated a complex dynamic whose patterns of change were not easy to predict. Implications of the study, its limitations and future research are discussed.     

Flow Experience and Autotelic Personality in Japanese College Students: How do they Experience Challenges in Daily Life?

Using the experience sampling method (ESM) and a sample of Japanese college students, the present study conducted two major examinations. First, the present study examined whether flow theory's most basic and general hypothesis, that quality of experience is a function of perceived challenges and skills, was applicable to the Japanese sample. Second, the present study identified autotelic and non-autotelic groups of Japanese college students and explored the nature of autotelic personality, focusing on how perceptions of challenges and skills affected the quality of these two groups' experiences, and how these two groups balanced their perceived challenges and skills when engaged in daily activities. The results showed that high challenge/high skill situations created an optimal state of mind for the Japanese college students, as flow theory postulates. Moreover, a Japanese index of psychological well-being referred to as Jujitsu-kan was reported as being high during periods of flow. The exploratory examination of the autotelic personality showed that the autotelic students' levels of perceived challenges and skills were more balanced than those of their non-autotelic counterparts. Moreover, the autotelic students showed a tendency to position themselves in situations where their perceived challenges were higher than their perceived skills, whereas the reverse was true for the non-autotelic students. Implications of these findings were discussed in terms of the universality of flow experience and autotelic personality, and their potentials to increase psychological well-being for the Japanese, as well as people across cultures.     

Role of motivation,self‐efficacy and parent support in adolescent structured leisure activity participation

An increasing body of research supports the positive physical, social and psychological health benefits of adolescent involvement in structured out‐of‐school leisure activities. Analysis of data from 1280 12–17‐year‐old Western Australian metropolitan high school students, found that several factors were associated with adolescent involvement in structured leisure activities, including parent support of the activity (both active and passive), intrinsic motivation and self‐efficacy. There were no significant gender differences in the rate of participation or hours spent participating in structured leisure activities overall. More female than male students, however, were involved in structured creative activities and male students spent significantly more time involved in structured physical group activities. Recommendations for supporting adolescent involvement in structured leisure activities are discussed.     

Experience Sampling Methodology reveals similarities in the experience of passage of time in young and elderly adults

Many people accept the idea that time seems to pass more quickly as they get older, as if this is a psychological reality. However, systematic investigations of differences in judgments of passage of time between young and elderly people are very rare and contradictory. The present study examined the experience of passage of time in daily life in young and elderly people using Experience Sampling Methodology (ESM), with 8 alerts per day for 5 days being delivered by smartphones. At each alert, a short questionnaire was filled in, asking questions about passage of present time, affective state, arousal level, and attention to current activities, among others. Our ESM study found no difference between the young and the old participants in the judgment of passage of present time. Irrespective of the participants' age, the experience of passage of time in every-day life was significantly related to affective states and current activities when they captured attention.     

The Mediating Roles of Work–Family Conflict and Facilitation in the Relations Between Leisure Experience and Job/Life Satisfaction Among Employees in Shanghai Banking Industry

In this study, we explore whether the relationship between leisure experience and job/life satisfaction is mediated by work–family conflict and facilitation, and how these effect coefficients varied among different demographic groups of gender, marital status as well as parental status. With the survey data from 1706 employees in the Shanghai banking industry, we found work–family conflict and facilitation acted as mediators between leisure experience and job/life satisfaction. In all demographic groups, work–family conflict was negatively related with leisure experience and job/life satisfaction. Conversely, work–family facilitation was positively related with leisure experience and job/life satisfaction. Moreover, we found (1) compared with the case for males, the negative effect coefficient of work–family conflict on job satisfaction was significantly higher in female samples. (2) The positive effect coefficients of leisure experience on work–family facilitation was higher for married couples than for unmarried employees. (3) For employees who had children, the negative effect coefficient of leisure experience on work–family conflict as well as the positive effect coefficient of leisure experience on work–family facilitation were significantly higher than for employees who had no children. The results of this study suggest that employees in the banking industry would experience a lower level of work–family conflict and better maintain work–family facilitation by engaging in leisure pursuits with their family. The limitations of this study were discussed as well.     

Flow at work: An experience sampling approach

One of the core constructs of the positive psychology movement is that of ‘flow’, or optimal experience. The current study investigated the relationship between ‘flow’, the core job dimensions, and subjective well‐being (SWB), as well as distinguishing between the state and trait components of flow. Experience sampling methodology (ESM) was used to track 40 architectural students over a 15 week semester while they engaged in studio work. Hierarchical linear modelling (HLM) indicated that 74% of the variance in flow was attributable to situational characteristics compared to dispositional factors. Results also indicated that academic work that was high in skill variety and autonomy was associated with flow. Flow was found to be correlated with positive mood. Cross‐lagged regression analysis showed that momentary flow was predictive of momentary mood and not vice versa. The strengths and limitations of using ESM to study subjective work experiences and well‐being are discussed, as well as the implications of the study of flow or optimal experience for industrial/organizational psychology.     

Crime and the elderly: a review of British and American research

Research into the victims of crime is of fairly recent origin and has been centred in America. However, a review of research into the experience of the elderly as the victims of crime, and their anxiety about crime, reveals a paradox. Numerous studies show that while the elderly are less likely to be the victims of crime than are the other age groups, they are among those who exhibit most anxiety over crime. The research is discussed in the context of theories of why the elderly appear as a low-risk group and in terms of an attempt to explain the paradox.