Why I did Not do What I Felt Like Doing When I Felt Hurt: An REBT-Based Investigation of Reasons Why Hurt-Based Action Tendencies are Not Acted On

In our previous study (Dryden and Hurton in J Ration Emot Cogn Behav Ther 29, 2013), we investigated the action tendencies that 100 people reported having, but did not act on in specific episodes where they felt hurt. In this study, we examine the reasons given by this same group of people for not so acting. Understanding the types of reasons why people do not act on their hurt-based action tendencies will first help REBT therapists to distinguish between constructive and unconstructive factors contained in these expressed reasons and thence to use this information to encourage their clients to act on their constructive tendencies and to discourage their clients from acting on their hurt feelings when it is unconstructive for them to do so.     

Team confidence,motivated information processing,and dynamic group decision making

According to the Motivated Information Processing in Groups (MIP‐G) model, groups should perform ambiguous (non‐ambiguous) tasks better when they have high (low) epistemic motivation and concomitant tendencies to engage in systematic (heuristic) information processing and exchange. The authors tested this prediction in an experiment with four‐person groups performing a complex and dynamic decision making task. Group confidence was measured after extensive training and prior to actual group decision‐making. Task ambiguity was manipulated. Results showed that when task ambiguity was low, group confidence indeed benefits decision quality and group performance. But when task ambiguity was high, group confidence hurt decision quality and group performance. Implications for theory and practice are discussed. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Approaching the development of hurt feelings in childhood

When do hurt feelings develop? In this paper, we want to set the stage for empirical investigations that can answer this neglected question. Thus, we present an integrative theory of hurt feelings according to which hurt feelings in their narrow sense consist of (a) a primary appraisal of an illegitimate devaluation, (b) a secondary appraisal of low controllability, (c) an action tendency to withdraw, and (d) the communicative function to signal that one has been wronged, and is expecting reparation. We argue that sulking behavior can be used as an approach to studying hurt feelings in young children because the same appraisals are assumed to underlie sulking. Thus, we review what is known about pouting as a facial expression and sulking behavior. After discussing the ontogeny of two important eliciting situations of hurt feelings—abandonment and sibling favoritism, we preliminarily conclude that relevant behaviors are not present in jealousy experiments that involve a situation of discrimination and that hurt feelings seem not yet present in the Ainsworth Strange Situation at twelve months of age. Finally, we review empirical studies on shame, pride, guilt and social norms because they relate to the same motivational topic of legitimacy and social evaluation. In summary, this review suggests that it is likely that sulking behavior and thus hurt feelings in their narrow sense begin to develop at the end of the second year, together with other self-conscious emotions, but that empirical investigations are strongly needed.     

Principles of cognitive science in education: The effects of generation,errors, and feedback

Principles of cognitive science hold the promise of helping children to study more effectively, yet they do not always make successful transitions from the laboratory to applied settings and have rarely been tested in such settings. For example, self-generation of answers to questions should help children to remember. But what if children cannot generate anything? And what if they make an error? Do these deviations from the laboratory norm of perfect generation hurt, and, if so, do they hurt enough that one should, in practice, spurn generation? Can feedback compensate, or are errors catastrophic? The studies reviewed here address three interlocking questions in an effort to better implement a computer-based study program to help children learn: (1) Does generation help? (2) Do errors hurt if they are corrected? And (3) what is the effect of feedback? The answers to these questions are: Yes, generation helps; no, surprisingly, errors that are corrected do not hurt; and, finally, feedback is beneficial in verbal learning. These answers may help put cognitive scientists in a better position to put their well-established principles in the service of children’s learning.     

The psychology of moderate prediction : I. Experience with multiple determination

In the experiments reported here, individuals with experience in a multivariate prediction setting showed considerable moderation of subsequent univariate predictions, compared to those without such experience. We show that such moderation of prediction does not result from an abstract rule of regression to the mean; rather, it can be explained by the named error model. According to this model, missing predictors are treated as an error term, with their unknown values replaced by central tendencies. Experiment 1 demonstrates the phenomenon of moderation following multivariate experience and explores its generalization to novel predictors. Moderation occurs even for a perfectly valid predictor, contrary to normative application of a regression strategy. Experiment 2 shows that the phenomenon depends on lack of correlation among the multivariate predictors. This accords with the named error model, which asserts that if missing predictors are perceived to be correlated with the available predictor, their unknown values are replaced by extreme values rather than by central tendencies. Experiment 3 shows that mere exposure to additional predictors has no effect; experience in which multiple predictors are used to make numerical predictions seems to be necessary in order to obtain subsequent moderation. In Experiment 4, feedback is introduced. Moderation of prediction results even without prior multivariate experience. However, multivariate experience produces the moderation effect much more quickly.     

Dealing with Hurt: An Assessment of Dispositional Style and Ethnicity in Coping Strategies

This study explored differences in coping styles based on the type of hurt experienced. Participants included 398 students (291 female and 87 male), who completed a computerized assessment of dispositional hurt, coping styles, and depression. The interrelationships amongst the two hurt typologies (introjective and retaliatory), 12 coping styles, and depression then were analyzed. Results showed that people with an introjective hurt disposition were more likely to use emotional support and instrumental support than those with a retaliatory hurt disposition, who were more likely to engage in planning and humor. Moreover, ethnic differences for two coping styles emerged; specifically, African Americans were more likely to use religion, whereas Caucasians were more likely to use substances as primary coping mechanisms.     

When the sexes need not differ: Emotional responses to the sexual and emotional aspects of infidelity

This study assessed whether previously reported sex differences in jealousy could be accounted for by other related emotions. Participants were presented with hypothetical scenarios involving both a sexual and an emotional infidelity, then were asked how jealous, angry, hurt, and disgusted they would be (using continuous scales). The results replicate the sex difference in response to sexual and emotional infidelity, demonstrate that it is robust when continuous measures are used, and confirm that it is unique to jealousy. Sex differences did not emerge for anger, hurt, or disgust. Instead, sexual infidelity elicited greater anger and disgust, and less hurt, than emotional infidelity, for both women and men. The results also suggest that it is the jealous response to an emotional infidelity that best discriminates women from men, and that both women and those participants in a serious, committed relationship reported significantly greater intensity in their emotional reactions, as compared to men and those not in a committed relationship.     

I Am Not My Body,This Is Not My Body

This paper suggests that during severe and prolonged traumatic experiences such as trauma type II, one may develop disownership toward the entire body. In this situation one’s body becomes a pure object and as such an integral part of the hostile environment. This article applies Merleau-Ponty’s approach to perception in order to improve our understanding of this process.     

Killing for the Telephone Company: Why the Nation-State is Not the Keeper of the Common Good

Christian ethicists often assume that the state is the agency whose purpose it is to protect and promote the common good. This conclusion is based on a series of assumptions of fact: that the state is natural and primordial, that society gives rise to the state and not vice‐versa, and that the state is one limited part of society. In this essay I examine the origins of the state and the state‐society relationship according to those who study the historical record, and argue that the above assumptions of fact are untenable in the face of the evidence. The essay concludes by registering a theological challenge to the state's sometimes overreaching claims to be the keeper of the common good and the repository of sacred values that demands sacrifice on its behalf. In the face of these tendencies, one of the church's urgent tasks is to demystify the nation‐state and to treat it like the telephone company—i.e., as a provider of goods and services that contribute to a certain limited order.     

共情对广义互惠的影响：自我-他人重叠的中介作用

与“我帮你,你帮我”的直接互惠相比,“我帮你,你帮他”的积极广义互惠,促使受助者转变为助人者帮助更多的人。与之相反,“我伤你,你伤他”的消极广义互惠,易导致受害者转变为伤害者波及无辜他人。以往研究未探寻到既能促进积极广义互惠,又能抑制消极广义互惠的因素。采用两阶段独裁者博弈任务范式,通过两项实验发现,共情是一个能够起到扩大积极广义互惠传递效应并削弱消极广义互惠传递效应双重作用的特殊变量,其机制在于自我-他人重叠,支持了自我扩张模型。这一研究为营造良好社会道德氛围,加强公民道德建设,保障公正和谐的社会环境提供了思路。     

Does hurt linger? Exploring the nature of hurt feelings over time

The utility of distinguishing between introjective hurt (feeling sad, engaging in selfblame, and wondering what one did wrong) and retaliatory hurt (yelling at, blaming, confronting, and feeling angry toward the offender) was explored in a longitudinal design of two months. Participants (N=51) were asked to describe a recent hurtful incident in survey format and complete subsequent measures of various behavioral and emotional reactions, including hurt and forgiveness. Results suggested the stability and relative independence of the two types of hurt and the differential significance of predictor variables (for example, apology) for each hurt type, both simultaneously and over time. These results support the distinction between retaliatory and introjective hurt as they represent distinct reactions with differential interpersonal outcomes.     

They are afraid of the animal, so therefore I am too: Influence of peer modeling on fear beliefs and approach-avoidance behaviors towards animals in typically developing children

This study investigated the effect of filmed peer modeling on fear beliefs and approach–avoidance behaviors towards animals in 8- to 10-year-old typically developing children. Ninety-seven children randomly received either a positive or negative modeling film in which they saw peers interact with a novel animal. Before and after this film, children’s fear beliefs and avoidance tendencies towards the modeled and non-modeled control animal were measured. A behavioral approach task was also administered post-modeling. Following positive peer modeling, children’s fear beliefs and avoidance tendencies towards the modeled but also towards the non-modeled animal decreased significantly. After negative modeling, children’s fear beliefs towards the modeled animal increased significantly, but did not change for the non-modeled animal. Negative modeling did not change avoidance tendencies for the modeled animal, while it decreased children’s avoidance of the non-modeled animal. No significant effects were observed on the behavioral approach task. These results support Rachman’s indirect pathway of modeling/vicarious learning as a plausible mechanism by which children can acquire fears of novel stimuli and stresses the important fear-reducing effects of positive peer modeling. Clinical implications and directions for future research are discussed.     

Maximizing Scales Do Not Reliably Predict Maximizing Behavior in Decisions from Experience

In this paper, we explore the relationships between psychometric and behavioral measures of maximization in decisions from experience (DfE). In two experiments, we measured choice behavior in two experimental paradigms of DfE and self‐reported maximizing tendencies using three prominent scales of maximization. In the repeated consequentialist choice paradigm, participants made repeated choices between two unlabeled options and received consequential feedback on each trial. In the sampling paradigm, participants freely sampled from two options and received feedback on their sampling before making a single consequential choice. Individuals exhibited different degrees of maximizing behavior in both paradigms and across different payoff distributions, but none of the maximizing scales predicted this behavior. These results indicate that maximization scales address constructs that are different from the maximization behavior observed in DfE, and that these measures will need to be improved to reflect behavioral aspects of choice and search from experience. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Neither Here nor There,I Do Not Vote and I Do Not Care: The External Electoral Participation of Mexican Migrants in New Zealand

In 2006, an estimated 4.2 million Mexican emigrants were entitled to vote in presidential elections in Mexico, making this country the highest potential recipient of external votes around the world. Despite this fact, during the 2006 and 2012 presidential elections, less than 1 % of that estimated population actually casted their external votes raising questions about how previous patterns of political behavior can transcend borders and accompany migrants to their new countries. In this work, I argue that Mexican migrants’ interaction with an established democracy such as New Zealand is not a fundamental reason to encourage political participation through external voting. Through a qualitative lens, the paper attempts to analyze sentiments, attitudes, and behaviors of Mexican migrants toward the political arena and their effect in preventing or encouraging formal participation in Mexican elections. I conclude that cultural patterns of electoral behavior that originated in Mexico play a decisive role in the way Mexicans relate to their native country, regardless of the intensity of political integration to New Zealand democracy.     

Atypical Gender Development: Why I Did Not Sign the GIRES-Review

ABSTRACT

This article discusses the review on Atypical Gender Development, published by the Gender Identity Research and Education Society (GIRES) in the International Journal of Transgenderism 9(1), 2006, pp. 29–44. Although appreciating the initiative of GIRES, the author, who was invited to join the signatories of the review chose to not do so for five major reasons: (1) The phenomenology of transgenderism displays such a great variety that it can not be explained by any individual factor, be it constitution, morphology, hormones or psychology. (2) The role of the Bed nucleus of the area striata of the hypothalamus is overemphasized in the review. (3) Regrets after SRS challenge biological explanations of transsexualism. (4) Dwelling on biological explanations may, as the history of sexology shows, be used in favor as well as against subject. (5) Striving for legal and social acknowledgement of transgendered persons and improvement of treatment conditions does not need biology as an argument.     

Not fixating at the line of text comes at a cost

Previous research on eye guidance in reading has investigated systematic tendencies with respect to horizontal fixation locations on letters within words and the relationship between fixation location in a word and the duration of the fixation. The present study investigates where readers place their eyes vertically on the line of text and how vertical fixation location is related to fixation duration. Analyses were based on a large corpus of eye movement recordings from single-sentence reading. The vertical preferred viewing location was found to be within the vertical extent of the font, but fixations beyond the vertical boundaries of the text also frequently occurred. Analyzing fixation duration as a function of vertical fixation location revealed a vertical optimal viewing position (vOVP) effect: Fixations were shortest when placed optimally on the line of text, and fixation duration gradually increased for fixations that fell above or below the line of text. The vOVP effect can be explained by the limits of visual resolution along the vertical meridian. It is concluded that vertical and horizontal landing positions in single-sentence reading are associated with differences in fixation durations in opposite ways.     

Emotional responses to sexual and emotional infidelity: constants and differences across genders, samples, and methods

In three studies (total N = 619), the authors tested an evolutionary hypothesis: Men are more bothered by sexual than emotional infidelity, whereas the reverse is true of women. More diverse samples (in age) and measures than is typical were used. In Study 1, the authors found across gender, sample, and method that sexual infidelity was associated with anger and blame, but emotional infidelity was associated with hurt feelings. The evolutionary effect was replicated with undergraduates but not with the nonstudent sample. In Study 2, narrative scenarios were used; it was found that nonstudent men and women were more hurt and upset by emotional infidelity but were made angrier by sexual infidelity. In Study 3, using Likert-type scales, scenarios, and a nonstudent sample, it was found that both genders were more upset, hurt, and angrier about sexual than emotional transgressions when rating one kind without hearing the opposite type. The implications for how emotional responses evolved are discussed.     

The peculiar longevity of things not so bad

Abstract— Intense hedonic states trigger psychological processes that are designed to attenuate them, and thus intense states may abate more quickly than mild states. Because people are unaware of these psychological processes, they may mistakenly expect intense states to last longer than mild ones. In Study 1, participants predicted that the more they initially disliked a transgressor, the longer their dislike would last. In Study 2, participants predicted that their dislike for a transgressor who hurt them a lot would last longer than their dislike for a transgressor who hurt them a little, but precisely the opposite was the case. In Study 3, participants predicted that their dislike for a transgressor who hurt them a lot would last longer than their dislike for a transgressor who hurt someone else a lot, but precisely the opposite was the case. These errors of prediction are discussed as instances of a more general phenomenon known as the region-β paradox.     

The relation between ethnic group attachment and prosocial tendencies: The mediating role of cultural values

Studies suggest that Mexican–American youths who feel attached to their ethnic group engage in more prosocial behaviors. However, the psychological mechanisms that account for this association are not clear. Drawing on social identity and self‐categorization theories, we examined whether the association between ethnic group attachment and tendencies to engage in six distinct types of prosocial behaviors was mediated by familism and Mainstream American values among Mexican American youths. Ethnic group attachment, familism, Mainstream American values, and prosocial tendencies were assessed among 207 Mexican–American early adolescents using an interview format. Latent variable path models showed that ethnic group attachment was associated with greater tendencies to engage in compliant, emotional, dire, and anonymous helping, and that each of these associations was at least partially mediated by greater familism values. Mainstream American values were related to greater tendencies to engage in public prosocial behavior and less altruistic behavior, but did not mediate the associations between ethnic group attachment and prosocial tendencies. The theoretical and practical implications of these findings are addressed. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Hindsight bias in economic expectations: I knew all along what I want to hear

Hindsight bias in economic expectations was investigated with particular focus on the moderating effects of attitudes. Stronger hindsight bias was expected for subjectively favorable economic developments. Six months before and after the introduction of the euro as the official book currency of the European Monetary Union, participants rated the probabilities of several economic developments. Results show that hindsight bias occurs with economic expectations and that it is moderated by attitudes. Euro supporters showed stronger hindsight bias for positive economic developments than for negative ones, whereas euro opponents showed the opposite pattern. The results support the notion that hindsight bias is a reconstruction bias in which self-serving tendencies can influence the reconstruction selectively for favorable and unfavorable outcomes.