Menstrual cycle, beta-endorphins, and pain sensitivity in premenstrual dysphoric disorder.

This study examined pain sensitivity and pain modularity mechanisms (e.g., beta-endorphin levels, blood pressure) in women with premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD; n = 27) and healthy controls (n = 27) during the follicular and luteal phases of the menstrual cycle. Physiological measures were taken during rest and ischemic pain testing. In both cycle phases, PMDD women (a) displayed lower resting cortisol and beta-endorphin levels and (b) exhibited shorter pain threshold and tolerance times and greater pain unpleasantness ratings during pain. PMDD women also reported greater pain unpleasantness and intensity and had lower beta-endorphin levels in their luteal phase and tended to display higher blood pressure levels at rest and during pain testing. Results suggest that endogenous opioids may be pathophysiologically relevant to PMDD and that the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis may modulate pain sensitivity in PMDD.     

Menstrual cycle-related changes of functional cerebral asymmetries in fine motor coordination

Fluctuating sex hormone levels during the menstrual cycle have been shown to affect functional cerebral asymmetries in cognitive domains. These effects seem to result from the neuromodulatory properties of sex hormones and their metabolites on interhemispheric processing. The present study was carried out to investigate whether functional cerebral asymmetries in fine motor coordination as reflected by manual asymmetries are also susceptible to natural sex hormonal variations during the menstrual cycle. Sixteen right-handed women with a regular menstrual cycle performed a finger tapping paradigm consisting of two conditions (simple, sequential) during the low hormone menstrual phase and the high estrogen and progesterone luteal phase. To validate the luteal phase, saliva levels of free progesterone (P) were analysed using chemiluminescence assays. As expected, normally cycling women showed a substantial decrease in manual asymmetries in a more demanding sequential tapping condition involving four fingers compared with simple (repetitive) finger tapping. This reduction in the degree of dominant (right) hand manual asymmetries was evident during the luteal phase. During the menstrual phase, however, manual asymmetries were even reversed in direction, indicating a slight advantage in favour of the non-dominant (left) hand. These findings suggest that functional cerebral asymmetries in fine motor coordination are affected by sex hormonal changes during the menstrual cycle, probably via hormonal modulations of interhemispheric interaction.     

Hormones and dichotic listening: evidence from the study of menstrual cycle effects

This report presents evidence for changes in dichotic listening asymmetries across the menstrual cycle, which replicate studies from our laboratory and others. Increases in the right ear advantage (REA) were present in women at phases of the menstrual cycle associated with higher levels of ovarian hormones. The data also revealed correlations between hormone levels and behavioural measures of asymmetry. For example, the pre-ovulatory surge in luteinising hormone (LH) was related to a decrease in left ear scores, which comprised a key part of the cycle related shift in asymmetry. Further analysis revealed a subgroup of women who had not reached postovulatory status by days 18-25 of the cycle, as verified by low progesterone levels. These women showed laterality profiles at days 18-25 that looked more like the other women when measured at the periovulatory phase (i.e., days 8-11). Data were combined with those from a previous study to highlight the stability of effects. Results showed a distinct menstrual cycle related increase in asymmetry in the combined sample. This final comparison confirmed the nature of sex differences in dichotic listening as being dependent on hormone status in women.     

Emotional distress and tobacco demand during the menstrual cycle in female smokers

Fluctuations in ovarian hormones over the menstrual cycle contribute to cigarette reward, however less is known about menstrual cycle influences on emotional distress in female smokers. We examined between-group differences in emotional distress (negative affectivity, emotion dysregulation, distress intolerance) and hypothetical cigarette purchasing (i.e. tobacco demand) among female smokers at three different menstrual stages. Women (n = 32) were non-treatment seeking daily smokers not on hormonal contraceptive, and were currently in their follicular (estradiol-dominant; n = 10), early-mid luteal (progesterone-dominant; n = 15), and late-luteal phase (decreasing progesterone/estradiol; n = 7). Effect sizes are reported given the small sample. Women in the late-luteal phase, relative to the follicular and early-mid luteal phases, reported higher levels of negative affectivity (d = 0.69), emotion dysregulation (d = 1.03), and distress intolerance (d = ?0.86). Compared to the early-mid luteal and late-luteal phases, women in the follicular phase reported the highest hypothetical cigarette consumption when cigarettes were free (d = 0.71) and made the largest maximum expenditures on cigarettes (d = 0.74). Findings offer preliminary evidence that the late-luteal phase is characterized by emotional distress, and the follicular phase is associated with elevated tobacco demand, which if replicated could implicate ovarian hormones in emotion-focused smoking.     

神经质程度和月经周期对女性主观情绪和生理反应的影响

分别选取两组神经质程度高、低女性16名和25名, 考察两组被试在月经周期不同阶段(经期、卵泡晚期、黄体中晚期)的激素(雌二醇、孕酮)波动以及观看情绪视频(中性、搞笑、悲伤、愤怒)的主观情绪感受和生理反应的差异。结果显示高神经质女性在月经周期中对负性情绪视频的主观情绪和生理反应变化明显, 黄体中晚期对愤怒视频主观情绪体验更低, 对悲伤视频生理反应更小, 而低神经质女性的情绪反应不受月经周期影响。研究表明高神经质女性的情绪反应更易受月经周期影响, 这可能与其对孕酮水平波动的敏感性高有关。     

Stress responsivity among dysmenorrheic women at different phases of their menstrual cycle: more ado about nothing

Dysmenorrheic and nondysmenorrheic women in the follicular, luteal and menstrual phase of their menstrual cycle participated in a stressful laboratory procedure. Pulse rate, pulse volume and skin conductance were measured continuously during baseline, during confrontation of three stressful tasks (i.e. stress-reactivity periods) and following each confrontation (i.e. stress-recovery periods). The hypothesis that dysmenorrheic Ss in the menstrual phase of their cycle would show greater stress responsitivity was generally not confirmed, and the broader contention that women differ in their stress responsivity as a function of their menstrual cycle phase was shown to be of questionable validity.     

Influences of menstrual cycle position and sex hormone levels on spontaneous intrusive recollections following emotional stimuli

Spontaneous intrusive recollections (SIRs) are known to follow emotional events in clinical and non-clinical populations. Previous work in our lab has found that women report more SIRs than men after exposure to emotional films, and that this effect is driven entirely by women in the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle. To replicate and extend this finding, participants viewed emotional films, provided saliva samples for sex hormone concentration analysis, and estimated SIR frequency following film viewing. Women in the luteal phase reported significantly more SIRs than did women in the follicular phase, and SIR frequency significantly correlated with salivary progesterone levels. The results are consistent with an emerging pattern in the literature suggesting that menstrual cycle position of female participants can potently influence findings in numerous cognitive domains. The potential implications of these results for disorders characterized by intrusions, such as post-traumatic stress disorder, are also discussed.     

Rhythmic organization of heart rate in breast-fed and bottle-fed newborn infants

Heart rates and behavioural states of 14 breast-fed and 14 bottlefed newborn infants were assessed every 30 seconds for 2 continuous hours. The 240 observations of heart rate were treated as time-series data and spectrum-analysed for behavioural rhythmicities. Of the 28 infants, 25 showed reliable cycles in heart rate; 22 of the 25 infants showed a dominant frequency with a 30–60 min periodicity, one that approximates the basic-rest activity cycle (BRAC). In addition to this basic cycle, additional higher frequency cycles in long-term heart rate variability were evident in the spectra of many infants. Breast-fed newborns had greater numbers of reliable cycles in heart rate than bottle-fed newborns. Further, breast-fed newborns had lower overall mean heart rates and lower mean heart rates in Quiet and Active Sleep states than bottle-fed newborns. Bottle-fed newborns were observed more often in Quiet Sleep than breast-fed newborns. Without knowledge of the specific mechanisms causing these behavioural differences, the results of this study suggest that the context in which breast-feeding occurs results in a more complex and energy-efficient pattern of behavioural organization than the context of bottle-feeding.     

Visual cerebral lateralization over phases of the menstrual cycle: a preliminary investigation

This study investigated whether visual cerebral asymmetries would change in phase with hormonal variations during the menstrual cycle. Lexical decision and line orientation tasks were administered during follicular, luteal, and menstrual phases of each woman's cycle. These tasks were also administered to a reference group of male subjects. Signal detection analyses indicated an unvarying RVF advantage in word/nonword discriminability (d') throughout the menstrual cycle, but a phase-dependent shift in left hemisphere response criterion (log beta). Gender differences were present for discriminability of line orientation, and female performance on this task varied over the cycle. The results imply that the neural systems subserving some cognitive functions are sensitive to fluctuations in gonadal steroids and suggest a hormonal basis for gender differences in some visual-spatial functions.     

Calories,beauty, and ovulation: The effects of the menstrual cycle on food and appearance-related consumption

The menstrual cycle has been largely ignored within the consumer research literature. Using a survey panel, women's food and appearance-related consumption was tracked for 35 consecutive days. As predicted, food-related desires, dollars spent, and eating behaviors were greater during the luteal (non-fertile) phase, whereas appearance-related desires, dollars spent, and beautification behaviors increased during the fertile phase. Dollars spent on products unrelated to food or beautification were not significantly influenced by the menstrual cycle. Hence, women's consumption desires, preferences, and dollars spent in evolutionarily relevant product categories (food and mating) fluctuate across their ovulatory cycle. Branding-related implications are briefly discussed.     

Progesterone at encoding predicts subsequent emotional memory

Significant sex differences in the well-documented relationship between stress hormones and memory have emerged in recent studies. The potentiating effects of glucocorticoids on memory vary across the menstrual cycle, suggesting a potential interaction between these stress hormones and endogenously cycling sex hormones. Here, we show that memory for emotional materials changes significantly in accordance with hormonal changes across the menstrual cycle, suggesting that ovarian sex hormones influence the modulation of emotional memories. Sixty healthy, naturally cycling women rated 120 images on arousal and valence. One week later they completed free recall and recognition memory tests. Their menstrual cycle phases were estimated by self-report and confirmed by salivary assay of 17β-estradiol and progesterone. Memory for emotional items only was significantly better in the high hormone (luteal) phase compared with the low hormone (follicular) phase on the free recall test; on both tests memory correlated positively with progesterone collected at the time of encoding. These findings suggest that emotional memory performance changes across the menstrual cycle, and that this change is in part mediated by endogenous progesterone cycling.     

Variations in sex-related cognitive abilities across the menstrual cycle

Sex differences in human cognitive and motor skills may in part be due to organizational or activational effects of sex hormones on the brain. In this study, an extensive battery of cognitive and motor tests was administered to normally cycling women at two phases of the menstrual cycle, in order to detect any hormone-mediated changes in performance. Results confirmed changes across the menstrual cycle on a variety of speeded manual and articulatory measures, and on some nonverbal/spatial tests. The results provide qualified support for the hypothesis that the high levels of gonadal steroids provide qualified support for the hypothesis that the high levels of gonadal steroids present at the luteal phase of the cycle may facilitate skills favoring females, but be detrimental to skills favoring males. The implications of these results for research in the area of human sex differences are discussed.     

Frontal EEG asymmetry and premenstrual dysphoric symptomatology

Resting frontal electroencephalographic (EEG) asymmetry has been hypothesized to tap a diathesis toward depression or other emotion-related psychopathology. Frontal EEG asymmetry was assessed in college women who reported high (n = 12) or low (n = 11) levels of premenstrual negative affect. Participants were assessed during both the follicular and the late luteal phases of the menstrual cycle. Women reporting low premenstrual dysphoric symptomatology exhibited greater relative left frontal activity at rest than did women high in premenstrual dysphoric symptomatology, an effect that was not qualified by phase of cycle. Although women with extreme levels of symptomatology were assessed, the question of whether such symptoms qualified for premenstrual dysphoric disorder criteria was not assessed. These results are consistent with a diathesis-stress model for premenstrual dysphoric symptomatology.     

The Relationship Between Premenstrual Distress and Anxiety Sensitivity: The Mediating Role of Rumination

Given that premenstrual distress is reported by large numbers of women, research has focused on the identification of biological and psychological factors that influence its severity. Previous research suggests that women who are high in anxiety sensitivity also report greater levels of premenstrual distress and negative affect. According to the menstrual reactivity hypothesis, women who have a tendency to self-focus and catastrophize about physical sensations are more likely to report greater levels of premenstrual distress. Cognitive schemas surrounding the menstrual cycle develop that are influenced by gender roles, cultural stereotypes, and expectations about bodily sensations. Another cognitive process, rumination, may also be linked to increased reports of premenstrual distress. Conceptually, the constructs of anxiety sensitivity and rumination share the tendency to self-focus on internal states. The goal of this study was to investigate how these two constructs relate to the prediction of premenstrual distress in a large sample of healthy undergraduate women (N = 478). Using mediational modeling, support was found for a mediational model; women who reported high levels of rumination and anxiety sensitivity reported the greatest premenstrual distress. These results are discussed within the framework of the menstrual reactivity hypothesis, a diathesis-stress model of premenstrual distress.     

Differential effects of the menstrual cycle on reactive and proactive aggression in borderline personality disorder

Borderline personality disorder (BPD) is characterized by rapidly shifting symptoms, including intense anger and aggressive behavior. Understanding how fluctuations in ovarian hormones across the menstrual cycle may contribute to symptom instability is key for accurate assessment of BPD symptoms and effective interventions. Reactive and proactive aggression, as well as anger-in and anger-out, were assessed daily in 15 physically healthy, unmedicated naturally cycling female individuals meeting criteria for BPD across 35 days. Urine luteinizing hormone surge and salivary progesterone were used to confirm ovulation and verify the cycle phase. Multilevel models evaluated cyclical differences of symptoms between cycle phases. Both forms of aggressive behavior demonstrated marked cycle effects, with reactive aggression highest during the midluteal cycle phase, co-occurring with initial increases in anger and irritability and followed by perimenstrual peaks in anger and anger-in. In contrast, highest levels of proactive aggression were observed during the follicular and ovulatory phases, when emotional symptoms and anger were otherwise at lowest levels. These findings highlight the importance of identifying the function of aggression when considering potential psychological and biological influences. Naturally cycling individuals with BPD may be at elevated risk for luteal worsening of a range of interpersonally reactive symptoms, including reactive aggression, whereas proactive aggression may occur more in phases characterized by less emotional and cognitive vulnerability and greater reward sensitivity. Research on aggression in this population should consider cycle effects. Cycling individuals with BPD attempting to reduce aggressive behavior may benefit from cycle-tracking to increase awareness of these effects and to develop appropriate strategies.     

Menstrual hormone changes and instinctual tendencies in dreams

Seventeen female college students completed dream questionnaires for every dream recalled over two menstrual cycles. Scales were devised to measure obvious and symbolic maternal and heterosexual dream content. Menstrual cycles were divided into follicular (progesterone-absent) and luteal (progesterone-present) phases for comparison within each subject. There were higher obvious and symbolic maternal scores in the luteal phase. It was concluded that hormones influence instinctual tendencies as expressed in dreams.     

Ambivalent sexism,attitudes towards menstruation and menstrual cycle‐related symptoms

The objective of the present study was to investigate the relationship between ambivalent sexism and beliefs and attitudes towards menstruation, and, in turn, to study the influence of these variables on menstrual cycle‐related symptoms. One hundred and six Mexican women completed the Ambivalent Sexism Inventory, the Beliefs about and Attitudes toward Menstruation Questionnaire and the Menstrual Distress Questionnaire. The higher scores on benevolent sexism were associated with the most positive attitudes towards menstruation and also with the belief that a menstruating woman should or should not do some activities and that menstruation keeps women from their daily activities. The higher scores on hostile sexism were associated with rejection of menstruation as well as with feelings of embarrassment about it. Beliefs about and attitudes towards menstruation predicted menstrual cycle‐related symptoms related to negative affect, impaired concentration and behavioural changes, but did not predict somatic symptoms. These results will be useful to health professionals and advocates who want to change the negative expectations and stereotypes of premenstrual and menstrual women and reduce the sexism and negative attitudes towards women that are evident in Mexican culture.     

Effects of menstrual cycle phase on aggression measured in the laboratory

This study investigated the effects of menstrual cycle phase on aggression in two groups of women, which differed in the severity of their self-reported perimenstrual symptoms. A low- and a high-symptom group were recruited using the Menstrual Distress Questionnaire (MDQ) to define the groups. Twenty-two subjects (11 low and 11 high symptom) participated across one menstrual cycle: during the premenstrual, menstrual, midfollicular, and ovulatory phases. The Point Subtraction Aggression Paradigm was used to assess aggression on each day of participation. There were three main findings; a) rates of aggressive responding did not vary across phases of the menstrual cycle; b) the high-symptom group emitted higher rates of aggressive responding across the menstrual cycle than did the low-symptom group; and c) rates of aggressive responding correlated with the MDQ's behavioral and psychological scales and not the somatic scales. These findings indicate that the menstrual cycle phase does not differentially affect this laboratory measure of aggression. The differences found between the two symptom groups parallel a few reports indicating that women who differ in retrospectively reported mood and behavioral changes related to their menstrual cycle also differ on a number of other psychometric measures. Aggr. Behav. 24:9–26, 1998. © 1998 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Behavioral Changes Associated with the Menstrual Cycle: An Experimental Investigation1

Fourteen female subjects were tested during the menstrual (days 1–4), follicular (days 6–12), luteal (days 17–21), and premenstrual (days 23–27) phases of their menstrual cycles. Of the tests used (arm-hand steadiness, galvanic skin response to an auditory stimulus, reaction time - simple and choice, time estimation, and digit-symbol substitution), only arm-hand steadiness showed statistically significant fluctuations over the course of the cycle. Daily self-ratings of various symptoms and moods showed no significant changes when the appropriate statistical techniques were used; parametric techniques suggested fluctuations in reports of pain, bloatedness, hunger, hours of sleep, and pressure of immediate academic work.     

Effects of the premenstrual syndrome on facial expressions of sadness

This study examined the relationship between PMS and emotion-related electromyographic facial activity at different phases of the menstrual cycle. Twenty-four women of reproductive age (12 with PMS, 12 controls) participated in two EMG sessions (T1 and T2) in which they were shown photographic images that can elicit various emotions (IAPS stimuli). T1 took place in the follicular phase, T2 in the luteal phase. The activity of the musculus depressor anguli oris ("depressor", expression of sadness) was measured. Depressor activity was compared to activity of musculus orbicularis oculi ("orbicularis"; expression of joy). ANOVA yielded a significant increase of the activity of the depressor at T2 in the PMS group. The PMS group showed more frequent depressor activity during the luteal than the follicular phase. Orbicularis activity did not change from T1 to T2. Conclusions: The PMS group experienced various visual stimuli in a more depressed way during the luteal phase.