Peer and cyber aggression in secondary school students: the role of moral disengagement,hostile attribution bias,and outcome expectancies

This study investigated the relationship between cognitive mechanisms, applied by people to rationalize and justify harmful acts, and engagement in traditional peer and cyber aggression among school children. We examined the contribution of moral disengagement (MD), hostile attribution bias, and outcome expectancies, and we further explored the individual contribution of each MD mechanism. Our aim was to identify shared and unique cognitive factors of the two forms of aggression. Three hundred and thirty‐nine secondary school children completed self‐report measures that assessed MD, hostile attribution bias, outcome expectancies, and their roles and involvement in traditional and cyber aggression. We found that the MD total score positively related to both forms of peer‐directed aggression. Furthermore, traditional peer aggression positively related to children's moral justification, euphemistic language, displacement of responsibility and outcome expectancies, and negatively associated with hostile attribution bias. Moral justification also related positively to cyber aggression. Cyber aggression and cyber victimization were associated with high levels of traditional peer aggression and victimization, respectively. The results suggest that MD is a common feature of both traditional and cyber peer aggression, but it seems that traditional forms of aggression demand a higher level of rationalization or justification. Moreover, the data suggest that the expectation of positive outcomes from harmful behavior facilitates engagement in traditional peer aggression. The differential contribution of specific cognitive mechanisms indicates the need for future research to elaborate on the current findings, in order to advance theory and inform existing and future school interventions tackling aggression and bullying. Aggr. Behav. 36:81–94, 2010. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Proactive and reactive aggression in delinquent adolescents: relations to aggression outcome expectancies

Investigated whether the relation between aggression and the tendency to expect positive outcomes for aggressive behavior is specific to the proactive subtype of aggression (as opposed to the reactive subtype). In a sample of 86 incarcerated adolescent boys ages 13 to 18, we measured outcome expectancies for aggression using audiotaped hypothetical vignettes. For each participant, staff members completed proactive and reactive aggression rating scales. Regression analyses revealed that the relation between aggression and outcome expectancies was indeed specific to proactive aggression. Furthermore, this finding was supported regardless of whether outcome expectancies were assessed using vignettes describing proactive-aggressive behavior or those describing reactive-aggressive behavior. We discuss these findings and argue that interventions to reduce proactive or reactive aggression should differ from each other by addressing the specific social cognitive processes involved in each type of aggression.     

The longitudinal association between social status insecurity and relational aggression: Moderation effects of social cognition about relational aggression

Previous research has shown that adolescents’ insecurity about their social status is related to their use of relational aggression. However, little is known about how adolescents’ social cognition may moderate this association. Employing a mixed-method approach and a short-term longitudinal design, this study addresses this issue by examining the moderation effects of attribution and outcome expectancies regarding relational aggression on the associations between social status insecurity and relational aggression among 476 Chinese adolescents (238 girls). The main results showed that self-serving attributions and instrumental outcome expectancies strengthened the positive and longitudinal association between social status insecurity and self-reported relational aggression. The findings of this study enrich our knowledge about the social cognitive processes pertinent to peer status and relational aggression among adolescents.     

Distinguishing Proactive and Reactive Aggression in Chinese Children

This study examined proactive and reactive aggression and their relation to psychosocial adjustment in three samples (N = 767, 368 girls, M age = 10.03) of Chinese school age children. Confirmatory factor analyses revealed that a two-factor model which distinguished both proactive and reactive aggression fit the data reasonably well, and also fit the data better than a single-factor model in all three samples. The distinction between proactive and reactive aggression was found for both boys and girls. Reactive aggression was more strongly related to reciprocated friendship (negatively), peer victimization, emotion dysregulation, hostile attributions of others' behavior in ambiguous social situations, and self-reported loneliness and social anxiety (positively) than was proactive aggression. Proactive aggression was related to positive outcome expectancies and efficacy beliefs of aggression for boys but not for girls, but the significant gender difference was only found for positive outcome expectancies. The findings suggest that proactive and reactive aggression represent two distinct forms of aggression which are associated with specific adjustment outcomes in Chinese children.     

Affective and health-related outcome expectancies for physical activity in older adults

This study tests the effects of affective and health-related outcome expectancies on physical exercise, assuming stronger direct and indirect (via intention) effects from affective outcome expectancy to physical exercise than from health-related outcome expectancy to exercise. Physical exercise and social cognitive variables were assessed at baseline, and 6- and 12-month follow-up in 335 older adults (60–95 years of age). Applying structural equation modelling, there was a direct effect from affective, but not from health-related outcome expectancy on intentions and behaviour. Also, the indirect effect from self-efficacy on physical exercise via affective outcome expectancy was significant, whereas the mediation via health-related outcome expectancy was not. These findings emphasise the relative importance of affective versus health-related outcome expectancies in predicting intentions and physical exercise in older adults and highlight the importance to separate these facets at a conceptual level to enhance both theory development and health promotion.     

Can Outcome Expectancies Help Explain Sex Differences in Direct and Indirect Aggression?

This study examined the role of outcome expectancies in explaining sex differences in adolescents' inclination to engage in acts of aggression. Using a sample of Australian adolescents, 2 scales were developed to measure outcome expectancies of direct and indirect aggression. The data were used in subsequent mediation analyses. Sex differences in direct aggression were partially mediated by 2 types of aggression expectancies. Relative to females, males anticipated more overall benefits associated with acting aggressively and less fear of reprisals from authority figures. This pattern of expectancy beliefs predicted higher levels of self‐reported direct aggression. Sex differences in indirect aggression were fully mediated by anticipation of personal benefits, with males expecting greater personal benefits for engaging in this type of aggression.     

Outcome of aggression affects processing and can legitimise subsequent aggression: Influence of trait aggressiveness

The present study investigated differences in processing times between positive and negative outcomes to an aggressive reaction to provocation. The effects of outcome, sex, trait aggressiveness and current mood on subsequent subject‐generated material were also examined. Fifty subjects read stories line by line on a computer screen. Reading time for the key sentence describing a positive or negative outcome to an aggressive reaction to provocation was recorded and subjects wrote a continuing sentence to half the stories. Subjects took less time to process the negative outcome. The positive outcome resulted in more subject‐generated aggression than the negative outcome. There were few sex differences but men wrote more aggressive endings than women for the stories containing physical aggression. Trait aggressiveness was correlated with producing more aggressive content in the continuing sentence for both outcomes. Feeling peaceful was correlated with producing prosocial material to neutral stories. Subjects therefore expect a negative outcome to aggressive behaviour. Reading stories which present a positive outcome to aggression increases the accessibility of aggressive cognitions. Subjects high in trait aggressiveness are not inhibited by a negative outcome. Aggr. Behav. 30:284–297, 2004. © 2004 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Testing the Assumptions of Attribution Theory in India

Abstract

Although numerous studies have investigated Weiner's (Weiner et al., 1971) attribution theory, little of this work has been conducted outside the West. Thus, the cultural boundaries of the theory have not been well established. In the present research, the basic tenets of the theory were tested in a conservative Asian Indian setting by examining the patterns of causal attributions, task evaluations, affective responses, and predictions for future performance among Asian Indian students when task outcomes were similar or discrepant with initial expectancies. Patterns of sex differences were also examined. The results showed that high expectancy individuals attributed their success more than their failure to ability and were less outcome contingent in their affective and cognitive reactions to their performance than lower expectancy groups. Indian women held slightly lower generalized expectancies than Indian men and attributed outcomes less to ability if initial performance expectancies were not high. The general pattern of results showed that Weiner's theoretical model was quite generalizable to the non-Western Asian setting.     

Social-Cognitive and Behavioral Correlates of Aggression and Victimization in Boys' Play Groups

A contrived play group procedure was utilized to examine the behavioral and social-cognitive correlates of reactive aggression, proactive aggression, and victimization via peers. Eleven play groups, each of which consisted of six familiar African-American 8-year-old boys, met for 45-min sessions on five consecutive days. Social-cognitive interviews were conducted following the second and fourth sessions. Play group interactions were videotaped and examined by trained observers. High rates of proactive aggression were associated with positive outcome expectancies for aggression/assertion, frequent displays of assertive social behavior, and low rates of submissive behavior. Reactive aggression was associated with hostile attributional tendencies and frequent victimization by peers. Victimization was associated with submissive behavior, hostile attributional bias, reactive aggression, and negative outcome expectations for aggression/assertion. These results demonstrate that there is a theoretically coherent and empirically distinct set of correlates associated with each of the examined aggression subtypes, and with victimization by peers.     

The effect of life expectancy on aggression and generativity: A life history perspective

Following a model that is inclusive of both dispositional and situational influences on life-history behaviors and attitudes, the effect of life expectancies on aggression and generativity was examined. Consistent with the hypotheses it was found that shorter life expectancies led to an increase in the desire to aggress and a decrease in the desire to engage in generative behaviors. The results are discussed in terms of how life history theory can be used to frame research on person-situation interactions.     

Alcohol‐aggression expectancies and dispositional aggression moderate the relationship between alcohol consumption and alcohol‐related violence

Alcohol consumption increases aggression, but only in some drinkers. This study examines how expectancies for alcohol‐induced aggression and dispositional aggression moderate the link between alcohol consumption and alcohol‐related violence, building on previous studies that have employed limited measures of alcohol‐related violence and included few women. A sample of 212 men and women reported their alcohol consumption, alcohol‐aggression expectancies, dispositional aggression, and incidents of alcohol‐related aggressive acts. Alcohol‐aggression expectancies and quantity of alcohol consumed interacted to predict alcohol‐related aggression. Alcohol‐aggression expectancies covaried with alcohol‐related aggressive acts, particularly in heavier drinkers. Dispositional aggression also correlated with alcohol‐related aggression among heavier drinkers. These results help identify that alcohol might increase aggression only among heavy drinkers who expect alcohol to increase aggression or who are dispositionally aggressive. Aggr. Behav. 32:517–527, 2006. © 2006 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Coping, competence, and aggression prevention: Part 1. Developmental model

According to coping-competence theory, current challenge encounters determine future life outcomes and competence. This theory provides a testable causal model of the development of persistent aggression. The model suggests that protective circumstances enable resilient youth to cope prosocially (helping self without harming others) even with uncontrollable challenges. Unprepared for language-based prosocial coping, high-risk youths' antisocial coping yields adverse life outcomes (e.g., school expulsion, teen pregnancy, police arrest). Each adverse outcome increases future antisocial coping, threatens future competence (i.e., self-definition, social reputation, dominant coping strategy), and aggravates status on risk-protection variables (i.e., parent warmth and skill, child temperament and intelligence). The same structural model may apply across the lifespan with changes in indicators and weighting of constructs during key developmental transitions. Part 2 presents the model's prevention implications.     

Expected consequences of anger‐related behaviours

In a study with 140 participants (66 men, 74 women), we investigated behaviour outcome expectancies (cognitive, affective and relational) regarding a broad group of anger‐related behaviours (e.g. hit someone, run away). Results of a three‐mode component analysis indicated that behaviour outcome expectancies vary considerably, depending on the behaviour (aggressive versus nonaggressive ones), the consequence (consequences related to the self versus consequences for the anger) and the individual. The findings are discussed in the context of catharsis theory, emotion regulation and functionalistic accounts of emotion‐related behaviour. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Dietary planning,self-efficacy,and outcome expectancies play a role in an online intervention on fruit and vegetable consumption

Objective: An online intervention to improve fruit and vegetable (FV) intake examines the role of planning, outcome expectancies, self-efficacy and gender. Women are not only expected to eat more FV than men, but they are also expected to be more responsive to nutritional advice and benefit more from treatment.

Method: A two-arm digital intervention with 269 men and 395 women (M_age = 41.2, SD_age = 11.45; range: 19–66 years) was conducted in Italy, Spain and Greece, followed up at three and six months, comparing a static with a dynamic, feedback-intensive platform.

Results: Linear mixed models yielded an increase in FV consumption in both the dynamic and the static intervention arms. In men, outcome expectancies were positively related to follow-up FV intake. Dietary planning interacted with self-efficacy on behavioural outcomes.

Conclusion: FV intake increased overall, and being a woman and involvement in planning facilitated behaviour change. Women seemed to be more engaged in the dynamic platform resulting in a higher amount of planning. Initial motivation, as indicated by outcome expectancies, seemed to be beneficial for men. Self-efficacious individuals benefitted from their engagement in planning, but self-efficacy did not compensate for failing to plan.     

Outcome expectations and use of smokeless tobacco (snus): A cross‐sectional study among young Norwegian snus users

Wiium, N. & Aarø, L.E. (2011). Outcome expectations and use of smokeless tobacco (snus): A cross‐sectional study among young Norwegian snus users. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology 52, 64–70. In this study, measures of outcome expectancies related to use of snus (wet snuff) were used to predict reported frequency of snus use. Data stem from a nation‐wide survey in Norway among 16‐ to 20‐year‐olds. Only users of snus were included in the statistical analyses (n = 589). The main outcome measure, frequency of snus use, was measured as a categorical variable – occasional, weekly and daily use. Four dimensions of outcome expectancies (mood regulation, smoking control, weight control and negative health outcomes) were measured and confirmed in a confirmatory factor analysis. Informants tended to believe that snus use is harmful to health, but still they supported the idea of snus as a way to control own cigarette smoking. In a SEM model, two of the four dimensions of outcome expectancies turned out to be particularly significant predictors of frequency of snus use – mood regulation and smoking control. No significant interactions with gender were found. Males scored higher than females on “mood regulation”, and “smoking control”, while females scored higher than males on “negative health outcomes”. If more smokers were convinced that snus use is a less harmful alternative, more of them might start using snus, not only because there is some association between health outcome expectancies and snus use, but also because snus use by many is perceived as a remedy to stop smoking and as a way to gain some of the mood regulation benefits which are usually associated with smoking.     

Predicting problem behaviors with multiple expectancies: expanding expectancy-value theory

Expectancy-value theory emphasizes the importance of outcome expectancies for behavioral decisions, but most tests of the theory focus on a single behavior and a single expectancy. However, the matching law suggests that individuals consider expected outcomes for both the target behavior and alternative behaviors when making decisions. In this study, we expanded expectancy-value theory to evaluate the contributions of two competing expectancies to adolescent behavior problems. One hundred twenty-one high school students completed measures of behavior problems, expectancies for both acting out and academic effort, and perceived academic competence. Students' self-reported behavior problems covaried mostly with perceived competence and academic expectancies and only nominally with problem behavior expectancies. We suggest that behavior problems may result from students perceiving a lack of valued or feasible alternative behaviors, such as studying. We discuss implications for interventions and suggest that future research continue to investigate the contribution of alternative expectancies to behavioral decisions.     

Alcohol Consumption, Outcome Expectancies, and Victimization Status Among Female College Students

The present study examined differences in the extent of alcohol consumption and endorsement of alcohol-related outcome expectancies between victims of alcohol- or drug-related sexual assault, victims of non-alcohol- or non-drug-related sexual assault, and nonvictim controls. The alcohol consumption patterns alcohol outcome expectancies and victimization status of 176 female college students were assessed. Results indicated that relative to nonvictims and victims of non-alcohol- or non-drug-related sexual assault, victims of alcohol- or drug-related sexual assault reported more frequent and greater alcohol consumption and a greater extent of endorsement of alcohol outcome expectancies. Furthermore. extent of alcohol consumption was associated with different alcohol expectancy outcomes for each group. Implications for the prevention of sexual assault and directions for future research are discussed.     

Expectancy Accessibility and the Influence of Outcome Expectancies on Adolescent Smokeless Tobacco Use

This study investigated the moderating influence of expectancy accessibility on the relation between outcome expectancies and drug use intentions. Specifically, it was hypothesized that expectancies made temporarily more accessible would predict smokeless tobacco intentions to a greater degree than would less accessible expectancies. In addition, it was anticipated that expectancies regarding positive outcomes of smokeless tobacco use would be better predictors of intention than would expectancies about negative outcomes. Results partially supported the accessibility hypothesis, but this effect occurred for positive outcome expectancies only. In addition, the anticipated prepotency of positive over negative expectancies in predicting drug use intentions was strongly supported. These findings are consistent with theories of problem behavior which differentiate between positive and negative outcome expectancies and which postulate that accessibility of expectancies plays an important role in expectancy-behavior relations.     

Alcohol expectancies, alcohol use, and hostility as longitudinal predictors of alcohol-related aggression

The direct and interactive effects of alcohol expectancies for aggression, dispositional hostility, and heavy alcohol consumption on alcohol-related physical aggression were examined across the first four years of marriage in a sample of 634 newlywed couples. For husbands, alcohol aggression expectancies predicted increases in alcohol-related aggression; across husbands and wives, however, aggression expectancies were not found to interact with hostility or alcohol consumption to predict physical aggression. Consistent with previous research, hostility and alcohol consumption interacted with each other to predict alcohol-related aggression. Specifically, for both husbands and wives high in dispositional hostility, heavy alcohol consumption was positively associated with the occurrence of alcohol-related aggression; for those low in dispositional hostility, however, there was no association between alcohol consumption and alcohol-related aggression. Findings are contrasted with previous longitudinal research on alcohol aggression expectancies and physical aggression in married couples. The article discusses the extent to which findings may vary depending on whether expectancies are assessed in relation to alcohol's effect on one's own behavior versus alcohol's effect on others' behavior.