Antecedents and consequences of career decisional states in adolescence

This longitudinal study tested students in Grade 8 and again in Grade 10 on career (maturity, barriers, indecision, decision-making and self-efficacy), well-being (self-esteem, life satisfaction, and coping), and social (school achievement, paid work experience) variables. Students were allocated to decided or undecided conditions at T1, T2 and across T1-T2, based on self-reported global decidedness ratings. As predicted, the undecided students had poorer career, well-being, and social outcomes than the decided students at T1 and T2. The undecided group was also less likely to report having paid work experience at T1, and to be overrepresented by females at T2. Students who were undecided at T1 and T2 (i.e., continuously undecided) fared poorer than students who were decided at T1 and T2 (continuously decided) and students who changed decision status from T1 to T2 (i.e., developmentally undecided). Females were more likely to be continuously undecided, although continuously undecided males were more complacent and more likely to use maladaptive strategies than females. Implications of being temperamentally versus developmentally undecided are discussed.     

Sex-role differences in time use

Analysis of how men and women spend their time reveals much about patterns of underlying sex-role relationships. This article examines national sample data on time use by men and women in order to determine systematic sex differences in the division of work and leisure in society. Particular attention is directed to how time-use patterns shift as both paid work and marital and family burdens are added to the woman's role. To determine time use, subjects kept diaries of their activities for a particular day. In addition, attitude questions about time use were also analyzed. Paid employment was found to constrain the free time of women far more than any other single role factor, including marriage and parenthood. Consequently, employed married women have significantly less free time than do employed men or women not in the labor force. While the free time of a married woman with children decreases when she becomes employed, a husband's free time may actually increase with his wife's employment. Nevertheless, few women indicated that they would like more help with housework and child care from their husbands. Several explanations for women's resistance to more male help are examined. Implications of these results for the career development of employed women and for future changes in marital role relationships are discussed.     

Male acceptance of female career roles

Forty-two male university students rated five written female role statements matched with video taped females on an 11-point probability of marriage scale. A significant main effect for work roles revealed the order of preference to be Immediate Nurturer, Delayed Nurturer, Homemaker, Integrator, and Career Primary — confirming the expected preference of these middle-class college males for women who combine traditional family goals with some degree of career involvement. There was also an interaction between work roles, female physical attractiveness, and male self-esteem, which revealed an inability of low self-esteem males to tolerate the very attractive career-oriented female.     

Examining the differences in career thoughts of women in three low socioeconomic status groups

The authors examined differences in career thoughts of 3 groups of women from low socioeconomic status backgrounds. The 3 groups were composed of women who were not seeking employment, women attempting to obtain General Educational Development (GED) certification prior to seeking employment, and women with disabilities who were participating in readiness‐to‐work programs. Results indicated that there were significant differences in participants' career thoughts. Specifically, career thoughts of women who were not seeking employment were significantly less dysfunctional than were the career thoughts of the women who were pursuing their GED certification and those of the women with disabilities who were participating in a job‐readiness training program. The impact of negative career thoughts is discussed.     

The dimensions of career and work orientation in college women

The purpose of this study was to clarify the meaning of the construct, career orientation. Fourteen presumed measures of career orientation as well as Super's Work Values Inventory were administered to college women. Analysis of the relationships among these variables identified two relatively independent clusters. The first cluster most closely approximated the usual definition of career orientation. Career-oriented women were found to be highly career motivated and perceived the career role as primary in their adult lives. The second cluster was called work orientation. This orientation characterized women with well-defined occupational aspirations who placed a high value on both the career role and marriage-family responsibilities in their future. Work-oriented women tended to choose traditionally feminine occupations in contrast to the career-oriented women whose aspirations included higher level and less traditional occupations.     

Locus of control and self-esteem as correlates of role orientation in traditional and nontraditional women

This research attempted to establish relationships between locus of control, self-esteem, and traditional-nontraditional behavior. It was hypothesized that (1) women tending toward internality and high self-esteem should be more likely to manifest nontraditional behaviors, as evidenced through career-oriented roles, and to rank these roles as their primary source of satisfaction; and (2) women tending toward externality and low self-esteem should be more likely to manifest traditional behavior, as evidenced through family-oriented roles, and to rank these roles as their primary source of satisfaction. The sample consisted of 91 White females in a southern metropolitan area. The data were collected using a survey design. As expected, high self-esteem internals were more likely to manifest nontraditional behavior. Contrary to expectation, low self-esteem externals were more nontraditional in role orientation.     

Maternal career-orientation as related to parental identification in college women

The relation of identification preferences in college women to maternal work history and maternal career attitudes was examined, using direct, forced-choice questions concerning perceived similarity and desire to emulate (“pattern preference”) the mother or the father. It was expected that mothers who participated in work and desired a career would be more attractive models, compared to the father, than mothers who were not career-oriented. These expectations were based upon the assumption that role status, power, and satisfaction, which are important in identification motivation, are generally greater in working mothers. Findings tended to support this argument and were interpreted with the aid of subjects' explanations of their identification choices.     

Balancing Act: Career and Family During College-Educated Women’s 30s

We assessed career, marriage, and motherhood expectations of 118 White Women and 82 Women of Color in 1993, when they were seniors at five northeastern U.S. colleges. Sixteen years later, in 2009, 77.5 % responded to our survey and answered questions about their career, marriage, motherhood, attitudes, and life satisfaction outcomes. As seniors, they wanted it all, career, marriage, and motherhood. In 2009, nearly two thirds were employed full time, 91 % had married, nearly three quarters were mothers, and about 57 % were combining full-time employment and motherhood. Comparisons are made among three role-status outcome groups: Have It All (mothers, employed full time); Traditional (mothers, employed part time or not at all), and Employed Only (childfree, employed full time). Educational level of the women did not predict role status. Spouses’ educational level relative to the women’s predicted role status, with Have It All women more likely to be married to less educated spouses than Traditional or Employed Only women. The role-status groups did not differ in their attitudes toward women in general, but Have It All mothers had lower levels of employment-related concerns about separation from their children than Traditional mothers. Most of the women still wanted to have it all. Many Traditional women looked forward to returning to employment, and many of the Employed Only women wanted to have children. Being a mother was associated with higher life satisfaction than being childfree. Results are discussed in terms of multiple-role theory and the positive influence of having family roles in the mix.     

Sex differences in perceptions of interpersonal work style,career emphasis,supervisory mentoring behavior,and job satisfaction

This study examined the perceptions of career-oriented men and women with respect to their interpersonal work style, career emphasis, supervisory behavior, and job satisfaction based on their current or most recent work experience. The results show that women subjects in this study perceived themselves to be less assertive in work situations and also continued to emphasize home life over their career success and advancement when compared to men. In the context of supervisory behavior, women subjects perceived male supervisors as exhibiting less mentioning behavior towards them and had lower job satisfaction when compared to male subjects under male supervisors in the study. Some implications of these results with respect to training and career management were also discussed.     

The Relation Between Mothers’ Attitudes Toward Maternal Employment and Social Competence of 36-Month-Olds: The Roles of Maternal Psychological Well-Being and Sensitivity

The relation of mothers’ attitudes on the effects of maternal employment on children, psychological well-being, sensitivity of the mother, and children’s socioemotional development were examined in mothers who worked full time (consistently) and mothers who were unemployed during their children’s early years of growth from 6 months of age. Longitudinal observations of 1,213 mothers and children from age 1 to 36 months from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) Study of Early Child Care were analyzed using structural equation models. Mothers and children benefited when maternal attitudes were consistent with the mothers’ actual employment status. Among consistently employed mothers, those with positive attitudes about employment had better psychological well-being. When mothers who were unemployed, they believed that maternal employment would have positive consequences for their children’s development, they preferred working outside home and they were more likely to show a low level of psychological well-being and poor quality of mother-child relation. Additionally, maternal well-being mediated the relation between a mother’s attitudes and a child’s social competence. For both groups, better psychological well-being of mothers was positively related to better child’s socioemotional outcome. Maternal sensitivity, however, did not mediate the relation between maternal attitudes and child’s social outcomes. The findings shed light on the need for a sensitive measure of characterizing mothers who work versus those who stay at home in order to better understand the effects on a child’s development.     

Achievement and affiliation motivation in career-oriented and homemaking-oriented college women

The purpose of this research was to investigate the possibility of an interaction between need for achievement and need for affiliation in career-oriented and homemaking-oriented college women. In the first study, scores on the appropriate scales (Achievement and Affiliation) of the Adjective Check List were obtained for 250 female college students, who were also classified as career or homemaking oriented on the basis of their responses to a questionnaire concerning postcollege plans. No significant differences were found between the career- and homemaking-oriented groups on Achievement and Affiliation; but, as predicted, a significant interaction occurred between the two variables. A second study, involving 257 college women and employing the same procedures and analysis, replicated the results of the original study: no main effects, but a significant interaction between Achievement and Affiliation. Implications of the findings for female career development and the counseling of women are discussed.     

Do Young Women Expect Gender Equality in Their Future Lives? An Answer From a Possible Selves Experiment

This study examined young women??s expectations about gender equality in their future careers and marriages. The study implemented a possible selves method in which 114 undergraduate women from a Midwestern university in the United States were randomly assigned to envision themselves as married mothers employed either full-time, part-time, or not at all and possessing either an advanced degree or a bachelor??s degree. Participants indicated their expectations for gender equality by estimating their own and their future husbands?? expected salaries and hours per week of housework and employment. They also evaluated their possible selves and estimated their emotional well-being and likely attainment of several important life goals. Greater employment produced greater expected gender equality, although in all conditions participants expected to have lesser salary and more domestic work than their husbands. With employment, compared with no employment, and with an advanced degree, compared with a bachelor??s degree, participants rated their possible selves more positively and estimated that they would have greater emotional well-being and attainment of life goals related to respect and finances. However, employment negatively affected participants?? anticipated relationships with their children. Thus, our participants?? reactions displayed a tradeoff between satisfying their employment goals and their goals for their relationship with their children.     

Personality correlates of career choice in the Kibbutz: A comparison between career and noncareer women

The study compared Kibbutz career women (who studied beyond high school and worked in their profession) to Kibbutz noncareer women (who did not study beyond high school and worked in various nonprofessional jobs such as the laundry, the kitchen, and child care) on several personality characteristics. All subjects were nonorthodox Jewish women who were born and raised in the Kibbutz. The two groups completed a variety of self-report inventories, including the Bem Sex-Role Orientation Inventory, need for achievement inventory, two self-esteem scales that measured both the global self-esteem and various dimensions of self-esteem (academic, social, physical appearance, physical abilities, and self-regard) and Cattell's Clinical Analysis Questionnaire (CAQ), which is a short version of Cattell's 16 Personality Factors Test. The results showed that Kibbutz career women differed significantly from noncareer women on several personality characteristics. These women attributed to themselves more instrumental characteristics, were found to be more independent and emotionally stable, and had a higher need for achievement and a higher academic and social self-esteem. In addition, the division of household work was more egalitarian in the case of career women. The results are discussed in view of the fact that all of the career women were actually holding traditionally feminine positions such as teachers and social workers.     

Achievement orientation,attainment values,and women's employment

This study examines age variance in the relationship of women's achievement needs and values to their participation in paid employment. The study group is a cross-sectional, nonprobability sample of 1120 women, ages 22–64, who contacted the Center for Continuing Education of Women at a major midwestern university. Three findings predominate: (1) Compared to general achievement orientation, the specific values attached to attainment through career and family are stronger predictors of employment status. (2) Degree of participation in paid employment is related positively to career values, and negatively to family values. (3) Career values, alone, are the best predictors of employment status among women aged 45–64, while a combination of career and family values best predicts employment among women aged 22–34 and 35–44. The findings suggest that women's labor force participation is partially a function of the interaction between career and family task demands and values.     

Career adaptability,calling and the professional competence of social work students in China: A career construction perspective

Based on career construction theory, the current research examined individual and contextual predictors for the professional competence of Chinese undergraduates majoring in social work (N = 270). Results showed that career concern and career curiosity predicted social work students' professional competence, with these relations mediated by the calling in social work. It was also found that the positive effect of calling on professional competence was stronger among students who perceived a lower level of career-oriented learning environment. The corresponding moderated mediation model was supported such that the indirect effects of career concern and career curiosity on professional competence were stronger among students who perceived a lower level of career-oriented learning environment. These findings carry implications for research on career construction theory, as well as career education and career counseling practices.     

Background and career orientations of women with mathematical aptitude

A “person-thing” career motivation continuum was tested as a model for structuring this investigation of the personal characteristics and career influences of women in mathematics who entered teaching or nonteaching careers. Women mathematicians who chose to teach were hypothesized to be more person-oriented in career development (i.e., they would be more influenced in the development of career interest by people). In contrast, women who chose careers in mathematically oriented fields, until recently considered nontraditional for their sex (engineering, physical science, accounting, economics, computer science), were expected to be more attracted to the “ideas” or “things” of mathematics.This hypothesis was tested in its null form by comparing personality traits and career influences for two groups of university senior women. Each group was composed of 30 subjects who had elected at least 24 semester credit hours in mathematics. Subjects were randomly selected after individuals were first stratified into two groups, according to whether they chose teaching or nonteaching careers in math-related areas.Second order personality traits derived from subjects' responses to Cattell's 16 PF Questionnaire were employed to assess personality differences. A biographical questionnaire was utilized for collecting data relative to career-influence factors. Multivariate analysis of variance and chi square statistical models were employed for data analysis.The two groups differed significantly in overall personality profiles. This difference was related to the nonteaching group's having scored significantly higher (than did the teaching group) on both the creativity and independence personality factors. Related to career influence, the nonteaching women appeared to develop their interests in mathematics somewhat earlier than did their counterparts who chose to teach. Women teachers were more attracted to their careers because of the influence of people engaged in mathematically oriented work. More of the nonteaching women cited influences associated with mathematics, itself, such as books, demonstrations and independent studies, as paramount in their career decision-making. Also, men were seen as more influential in fostering their career development by the non-teaching group, while in contrast, the teachers chose women as more influential in the development of their interests in mathematics.These findings appear to support the “person-thing” hypothesis associated with the development of career interests for women in mathematics.     

A study of career patterns of women college graduates

The employment and educational histories of 498 women college graduates of 1968 were investigated to assess the women's career progress in the 10 years since college. The women were classified in a proposed seven-category system of career patterns adapted from those of D. G. Zytowski (Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1969, 47, 660–664) and K. P. Wolfson (Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1976, 23,(2), 119–125). The system established categories for pioneer (nontraditional) as well as traditional women's occupations at varying levels of both span (length) and degree of participation in paid employment. The seven resulting career pattern groups were compared on personal and career-relevant variables. The findings indicated that a majority of the women graduates have worked continuously outside the home since 1968, and many have entered pioneer occupations. Only 1.4% of the present sample of women were full-time homemakers throughout the 10-year period. On the other hand, 28.5% of the women in the sample were currently employed in pioneer occupations. A majority of the women (79%) have combined both careers and homemaking. Women in traditionally female careers, as compared with pioneer women, were less likely to change careers across the 10-year period, and were more likely to move in a horizontal or downward career direction. Pioneer women were more likely than traditionals to move from lower-to higher-level careers. The findings support the use of the adapted classification system in future studies and also provide data for use with women who are now planning for future careers and lifestyles.     

Multiple Roles and Well-Being: A Study of Mothers of Preschool Age Children

The relation of well-being to involvement in multiple roles was examined in a study of 134 Caucasian women. All subjects were married and mothers of at least one preschool child; 50 were also paid workers. Two indices of well-being were used: (a) self-esteem; and (b) satisfaction with one's current role pattern. No differences in level of well-being were found between the employed and nonemployed groups. Findings were discussed in relation to theoretical perspectives on multiple role involvement.     

A longitudinal study of work-based, adult-youth mentoring

Using a longitudinal design, this study explored the relation of urban high school student attitudes toward school, work, and self-esteem beliefs to work-based mentoring, mentor satisfaction, and employment status. Participants included high school students taking part in a formal work-based mentoring program, students who established informal mentoring relationships at work, students who worked without a mentor, and students who were not employed during the academic year. While there were no significant group differences in the measures at the start of the year, results at the end of the year showed that students in the formal mentoring program believed more strongly that school was relevant to work than those who worked without a mentor. Students with mentors had higher levels of self-esteem than those who did not work. Students who were highly satisfied with their mentors had higher levels of self-esteem and believed more strongly that school was relevant to the workplace than students who did not work. The implications of these results are discussed and future research areas are identified.     

Cognitive support for the career choices of college women

The career aspirations of 50 female college seniors of lower- and middle-class backgrounds was assessed by a questionnaire and tape-recorded interview. Using a fourfold classification contrasting career choice with career commitment, the women were classified as innovative career oriented, innovative noncareer oriented, traditional career oriented, and traditional noncareer oriented. The career aspirations of these women, however, were not related to maternal employment patterns as previous studies have indicated. Rather, the perceived attitudes and direction of the parents was found to be a significant correlate of career choice and career commitment. It was concluded that maternal employment as a modeling variable may be unimportant for women of lower- and middle-class backgrounds.This article is based on a dissertation which was submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Ph.D. degree in the Graduate Center, City University of New York. The author expresses appreciation to Dr. Florence Denmark for her continuous support throughout the entire study and also thanks Dr. Bernard Seidenberg for his valuable suggestions on earlier drafts of this article.