外来宗教思想中国化及其基本特点

本文从六个方面论述外来宗教思想中国化问题，包括外来宗教思想中国化的本质、个性特征、始终时间、结果与影响、研究的新境界以及中国化宗教思想基本特点等六个方面的内容。本文特别指出：强调爱国爱教及其辩证关系，强调和平、和睦、和谐三者的统一与实践，强调适应主流社会、接受主流意识形态引导，强调针对社会问题弘扬平等观念，乃是源远流长的中国化宗教思想的基本特点。     

有必要学一点宗教知识──《宗教知识丛书》总序

我国是多种宗教信仰并存的多民族国家。各种宗教源远流长、根深叶茂、千姿百态,有漫长的历史沿革。除道教、民间宗教等本土宗教外,佛教、基督教、伊斯兰教三大世界性宗教也都先后在华夏大地上安家落户,并以其特有的方式对中国人的知与行产生广泛而深远的影响。各教在传入中国过程中,由于受适者生存“金律”的制约,都很重视入乡随俗问题,并在民族化、本地化方面取得明显的进展。异质的外来宗教思想文化能在异国他乡生根、开花、结果,这一事实一方面生动地体现了宗教信仰所具有的顽强的生命力,同时它也再次验证了以儒家为主体的中国传…     

从佛教的中国化看基督教在中国的发展

从印度佛教的中国化与中国化佛教的向世界传播,来讨论宗教的普世性与地方化,对于在全球化时代的今天讨论基督教在中国的发展,是十分有意义的。本文即以印度佛教的中国化为视点,重点探讨了三个方面的问题:(1)从外来宗教与本土文化相碰撞所引发的各种问题中来回顾佛教的中国化历程及其在中国的广泛传播与发展。(2)探讨中国化的佛教如何既坚持佛教的基本信仰与教义,又与中国传统文化相融合,表现出了中国的特色,从而获得了在中土的成功传播与发展。(3)探讨基督教的普世化与本土化问题,认为基督教在中国的传播发展过程中,必须进一步处理好与中国社会文化的关系,特别是与社会主义社会相适应。     

伊斯兰伦理道德对我国穆斯林的影响

伊斯兰教传入我国已有1300多年的历史。在我国的56个民族中,有回、维吾尔、哈萨克、东乡、柯尔克孜、撒拉、塔吉克、乌孜别克、保安、塔塔尔等10个少数民族,约2000万人口信奉伊斯兰教。伊斯兰教自传入中国,历经了漫长的传播与发展历史过程。在这个过程中,经历了与中国传统文化的撞击与融合、地方化、民族化的过程;同时,对我国信奉伊斯兰教的10个少数民族的社会生活、民族传统及精神文明建设产生了重大影响。首先,从唐永徽二年(617年)到南宋末年的600多年间,阿拉伯商人到中国贸易,通过商人落居中国,在中国娶妻生子,从而逐渐成为“本土化”的…     

从世界宗教史规律看“宗教中国化”

<正>世界宗教史研究视野中的"本土化""民族化"和"处境化"等概念,具体就中华文化、中华民族和中国社会而论,就是意指"宗教中国化";中国宗教史当然是世界宗教史的重要组成部分,世界宗教史所历来证实的各大宗教传统的"本土化""民族化"和"处境化"共相,无疑意味着"宗教中国化"是符合这一普遍规律的。     

抓紧做好党的民族工作和宗教工作

当全世界上的热点地区和热点问题，无一不导民族问题和宗教问题有关。努力巩固和完善民族区域自治制度，认真贯彻党的民族政策和宗教政策，全面加强党的民族工作和宗教工作，是主党的一项重要任务。我们党将马克思主义的民族理论和宗教理论与中国的具体实践紧密结合，制定和完善了一整套符合中国实际的民族政策和宗教政策，走出了一条具有中国特色的处理民族间题和宗教问题的正确道路。当前的国际国内形势，要求我们必须下气力加强党的民族和宗教工作。应当看到，达赖集团的分裂活动仍严重威胁着我国的安全和统一，境内外的民族为裂主义分子…     

从阿叱力教派出发:问题与范式的讨论

佛教是世界性宗教,它的传播、传承与发展始终处于世界性与地方化、民族化的交织之中。流行于云南的阿叱力教派具有典型意义,在称谓、来源、演变、与地方传统的关系、研究依据的资料与理论工具等方面,学术界见仁见智,各有妙解。作者认为把"白族佛教密宗阿叱力教派"作为阿叱力的正式称谓是比较合适的。阿叱力教派最初渊源于天竺密教,后期受到内地佛教的影响,它在南诏大理国500年历史中始终处于主导地位。元、明、清三代,禅宗渐盛,阿叱力教派逐渐从"官方宗教"演变为"乡土宗教"流传于民间,直到近现代。     

动画影像的视觉文化研究——中国动画的文化传承性探析

动画影像给人们带来了非同寻常的视觉享受,动画中优秀的角色形象以其独特的艺术感染力和生命力带来了极其丰富的艺术和商业价值。在当代以视觉文化为主导的大环境中,中国动画影像创作却呈现出雷同或者媚俗的趋势,盲目模仿国外和民族文化精神的匮乏势必会影响中国动画的可持续发展。因此,传承本民族文化精髓对于中国动画的长足发展就显得尤为重要。中国动画要走民族化道路应注意以下几点:1.民族化的动画角色设计,2.民族化的动画故事情节,3.民族化的文化精神内涵,4.民族化的视觉表现形式。     

传统与外来文明的融合互补

传统与外来文明的融合互补赖传祥传统与外来文明成果，都是人类文明发展大道上的不同的文明形式。传统的更新，是在现代化建设的实践中，通过与外来文明成果的融合互补，创造出符合时代特点的从中国这块土壤中诞生的现代形态的传统。这种现代形态的传统应是中华民族性格的重新铸造，是中国传统的真正更新。传统与外来文明成果融合，必须从传统出发，以传统作为自我更新的逻辑起点。同时，借助外来文明的力量，以最大的气魄去容纳中外文明的冲突，使传统中的各种文化要素发生变化，重新塑造在中国本土传统的基点上的互补结构。这种互补结构，既不是坚守传统，也不是照搬外来文明成果，而是在中国本土上建立起来的一种适合中国国情的、融合中外文明优点的具有互补性质的新结构。互补结构的形成，必须经过一系列的中介。必须具备一种由外在转化为内在的特定的文化社会机制。这种机制主要有两方面：一是必须造就作为主体的能接通传统与外来文明成果的强大的社会力量；二是必须全力找到并大力扶植中国本土传统与外来文明成果融合的生长点。传统与外来文明的互补，包含着双重改铸。即引进外来文明成果对传统进行现代化的改铸和立足于本国国情对外来文明进行民族化的改铸。这两种改铸是同步并进的。虽然这两种     

武陵民族走廊少数民族宗教研究的意义

武陵民族走廊是多元民族、多元文化汇聚流动之地,各少数民族既保留有长期传承的原始宗教信仰,又受到外来宗教文化的深刻影响,呈现出丰富的宗教文化样态。本文从武陵民族走廊的宏观视角来考察少数民族宗教文化元素,将区域和文化两个概念相结合进行文化阐释,这是解析民族文化和民族历史的重要途径,对研究民族关系,筑牢中华民族共同体意识有现实意义。同时,也对认识宗教发展的一般规律,开阔民族学的研究视野有理论价值。     

EFFECTS OF ALIEN-REINFORCEMENT AND ITS COMBINED TYPE ON LEARNING BEHAVIOR AND EFFICACY IN RELATION TO PERSONALITY*

Effects of new types of reinforcement, alien type and alien combined with external type (double reinforcement), were examined in comparison with a conventional external one. One hundred and twenty children, 6th grade boys and girls, worked on learning discrimination tasks. Under alien reinforcement, upon correct responses of the child the experimenter received reinforcers from him-(or her-) self thus reinforcing the child responses. Under each condition, alien, external or double, children learned the tasks and their learning efficacy increased. Personality characteristics of children, in terms of extraversion and emotionality, differentiated effects of three reinforcement conditions on learning behavior and efficacy. The effect of alien reinforcement was influenced by the personality factors most, and that of double reinforcement least. In addition, personality factors influenced differently between alien and external conditions. Learning occurred differently under three different conditions of reinforcement, depending on the personality type of learners. Underlying mechanisms of alien reinforcement were different from, and its functions were independent of, those of external reinforcement. None of the effects of alien reinforcement on learning and motivation were contaminated by the intellectual faculties of learners.     

To Belong or Not to Belong. Affective Self-Nationalization in Thailand

Through analyzing conflict narratives regarding Khao Phra Wihan, a territorial conflict important for nationalists in Thailand, this article aims to detangle how nationalization is experienced and performed on an individual level. In this article, the concept “affective self-nationalization” is proposed to analyze the emotional and embodied practices through which individuals fashion themselves into nationalized subjects. In Thailand, self-nationalization is instigated by the governing agency through repeated, regular, mandatory, public performances of loyalty through which individuals create the nation collectively. These performances create automatic feelings to the nation, establishes national others as fearsome, and rule through the basic human need of belonging. At the same time, individuals’ emotions shape the society through how they decide to perform nationalization. The concept of “affective self-nationalization” captures the connections between the official nationalizing program of “outside” society in a form of nationalist emotional socialization with individual experience of nationalizing.     

Parental recognition in the rat

Infant rats were tested in a 2-choice test for their preference for (a) their mother vs an alien mother, (b) their father vs an alien father and (c) their father, whom they had never experienced, vs an alien father. Pups were able to recognize their mother and showed a preference for her for the duration of the experiment. Pups could also recognize their father, even if they had never previously experienced him. However, they showed a reversal in preference for their father during the experiment, preferring their father at Days 10-14, but preferring an alien father at Days 18-22. It is concluded that fathers are recognized by general cues of kinship through “phenotype matching”, whereas mothers assume a positive reinforcing value and are recognized by individual cues.     

Modes of perceiving and processing information in birdsong (Agelaius phoeniceus, Molothrus ater, and Homo sapiens)

In a previous study I examined the abilities of red-winged blackbirds and brown-headed cowbirds trained with a go-right/go-left procedure to identify conspecific and alien song themes (Sinnott, 1980). Results showed that each bird species exhibited superior identification of conspecific final "trill" or "whistle" elements, relative to the alien species. The present study extends these results by examining human perception of these same song stimuli, by examining the effects of tutoring birds with alien final song elements, and by using latency analyses to investigate processing modes that are not apparent from analyses of percent-correct scores. Results suggest three different processing modes: First, humans attend primarily to the final song elements. Second, birds identifying alien songs attend primarily to the introductory elements and disregard information in the final elements. Third, birds identifying conspecific songs process both the initial and final elements, but their response latencies indicate that they direct their attention primarily to the initial elements and process the final elements without investing more time than do the alien birds that fixate on the initial elements. Conspecific special processing is discussed in relation to various psychophysical, ethological, and psycholinguistic frameworks. Human perception of birdsong is discussed in relation to backward recognition masking.     

VOLITIONAL ASPECTS OF VOICE PERFORMANCE: AN EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

The subjects (all females) were instructed to hold a certain note. In some of the trials an alien (female) voice with a continuously falling or rising frequency unexpectedly replaced the subject's own voice as the auditory stimulus in her headphone. Most of the subjects took the alien voice as their own and experienced a complete lack of volitional control over their own voice. A compensatory behaviour was found; when the subjects tried to hold the note the frequency of their voices went in the opposite direction to the frequency of the alien voice.     

Can but don’t: olfactory discrimination between own and alien offspring in the domestic cat

Mammalian maternal care usually comes at a large energetic cost. To maximize their fitness, mothers should preferentially care for their own offspring. However, the majority of studies of mother–offspring recognition have focused on herd- or colony-living species and there is little information on maternal discrimination in more solitary-living species. Olfaction has been found to play a major role in mother–offspring recognition across various taxa. Therefore, our aim was to study this in a species evolved from a solitary-living ancestor, the domestic cat. We asked whether cat mothers distinguish between their own and alien offspring when providing maternal care, and whether cat mothers use olfactory cues in the offspring discrimination process. Results of Experiment 1 showed that cat mothers do not discriminate between own and alien young when retrieving them to the nest. They treated own and alien young similarly with respect to latency and order of retrieval. However, the results of Experiments 2 and 3, where we used an olfactory habituation-discrimination technique, showed that mothers were able to distinguish between the odours of their own and alien kittens. We discuss what ecological and/or behavioural factors might influence a mother’s decision when faced with discriminating between own and alien young, and why mothers might not discriminate between them when they are able to do so. Our findings support the view that maternal care alone should not be used as a measure of offspring recognition, and equal maternal care of own and alien young should not be immediately interpreted as an inability to discriminate between them.     

Factors influencing song development in the white-crowned sparrow (Zonotrichia leucophrys)

Nestling white-crowned sparrows (Zonotrichia leucophrys nuttalli) were hand-reared in sound-isolation chambers under a variety of conditions. The songs of total isolates were compared with songs of birds tutored with song, and the number of inputs sufficient for a bird to produce a normal song was explored. The flexibility of the song learning system was investigated with a range of tape-recorded tutor songs: alien dialects, alien subspecies, alien species, alternating alien dialects, and an aberrant song. Adult songs were obtained for 40 males and 7 testosterone-injected females. All of the tutor songs could be learned. Also, some birds learned elements of an alien species' song. Birds tutored with two songs copied one or the other, were bilingual, or sang a hybrid of the two. No bird presented with fewer than 120 songs learned the tutor song; 2 birds tutored with 252 songs copied the tutor song. It is concluded that the song learning system is quite flexible, hat the results obtained with tape-tutors are very different from those with social tutors, and that there may be an interaction between total number of song inputs and the number presented on a single day. Some implications of these data for physiological mechanisms and the possible functional significance of the acquisition system are discussed.     

Phenomenology and delusions: Who put the ‘alien’ in alien control?

Although current models of delusion converge in proposing that delusions are based on unusual experiences, they differ in the role that they accord experience in the formation of delusions. On some accounts, the experience comprises the very content of the delusion, whereas on other accounts the delusion is adopted in an attempt to explain an unusual experience. We call these the endorsement and explanationist models, respectively. We examine the debate between endorsement and explanationist models with respect to the 'alien control' delusion. People with delusions of alien control believe that their actions and/or thoughts are being controlled by an external agent. Some accounts of alien control (e.g., ) are best thought of in explanationist terms; other accounts (e.g., ) seem more suited to an endorsement approach. We argue that recent cognitive and neurophysiological evidence favours an endorsement model of the delusion of alien control.     

Decisions for others are more creative than decisions for the self

Four studies investigate whether decisions for others produce more creative solutions than do decisions for the self and if construal level explains this relation. In Study 1, participants carried out a structured imagination task by drawing an alien for a story that they would write, or alternatively for a story that someone else would write. As expected, drawing an alien for someone else produced a more creative alien. In Studies 2a and 2b, construal level (i.e., psychological distance) was independently manipulated. Participants generated more creative ideas on behalf of distant others than on behalf of either close others or themselves. Finally, in Study 3, a classic insight problem was investigated. Participants deciding for others were more likely to solve the problem; furthermore, this result was mediated by psychological distance. These findings demonstrate that people are more creative for others than for themselves and shed light on differences in self-other decision making.     

Laboratory and field observations of attack by the red wood ant Formica lugubris Zett. On Formica cunicularia Latr. (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)

Attack by red wood ants (Formica lugubris Zett.) on an “alien” species (Formica cunicularia Latr.) was analyzed both in the laboratory and in the field. Elements of such attack were recorded. Attack and conflict were observed in each encounter and follow immediately after the first contact. This overt attack was vigorous and generally led to the death of the alien. Laboratory data were confirmed by field observations, although under these conditions aggressiveness of F lugubris appeared increased possibly because of the animal's familiarity with its surroundings.