Charismatic Leadership and Objective Performance Indicators

Recent empirical and theoretical work has advanced our understanding of charismatic leadership in organisations. Despite this progress, only a few studies have tested the hypothesis that charismatic leadership might be related to objective, organisationally relevant indicators. In order to address this research gap, the present study tested whether charismatic leadership was related to followers’ absenteeism, their training and development activities, as well as branch‐level profit. Charismatic leadership was defined according to Conger and Kanungo's (1998 ) theory. It could be demonstrated that facets of charismatic leadership were negatively related to followers’ absenteeism, but positively related to their training and development activity. Moreover, charismatic leadership showed a positive relationship to profit. In sum, the results contribute to theory and practice of charismatic leadership. Un travail empirique et théorique récent a fait progresser notre compréhension du leadership charismatique dans les organisations. Malgré ce progrès, seules quelques études ont testé l’hypothèse selon laquelle un leadership charismatique serait liéà des facteurs objectifs et pertinents pour l’organisation. Pour une compréhension plus approfondie des effets du leadership chatismatique, la présente étude teste si ce style de leadership est lié aux suiveurs, à l’absentéisme, aux activités de formation et de développement ainsi qu’aux bénéfices au niveau de la branche. Le leadership charismatique est défini en accord avec la théorie de Conger et Kanungo (1998). On a pu démontrer que les facettes du leadership charismatique sont liées négativement aux suiveurs, à l’absentéisme et positivement à l’activité de formation et de dévelpppement. En outre, le leadership charismatique montre une relation positive au profit. En somme, les résultats contribuent à la théorie et à la pratique du leadership charismatique.     

On Charisma and Need for Leadership

Some scholars have argued and found that the relationship between transformational or charismatic leadership and outcomes can be moderated by subordinate or situational characteristics (e.g. Bass & Avolio, 1990; Podsakoff, MacKenzie, & Bommer, 1996). Still, there is insufficient evidence on this issue. In this article we examine need for leadership (De Vries, 1997) as a moderator of the relation between a measure of charismatic leadership (Bass, 1985a; Den Hartog, Van Muijen, & Koopman, 1994) and subordinate outcomes. Need for leadership is found to moderate the relation between charismatic leadership and three out of four subordinate outcomes. Furthermore, we examine the relationship between charismatic leadership and need for leadership. Although it has been asserted that transformational or socialized charismatic leaders are able to empower and develop subordinates to become leaders themselves (e.g. Bass & Avolio, 1990; Kuhnert, 1994; Yammarino, 1994), we find a positive relationship between charismatic leadership and need for leadership, which suggests that subordinates are more, instead of less, dependent when a charismatic leader is present.     

Development and Validation of a Situational Judgment Test of Employee Integrity

Based on Becker's theory (1998) and pilot work (2000) , I developed a situational judgment test of employee integrity. In this study, I examine whether scores on this test predict integrity‐relevant outcomes. The analysis of data from fast service employees, engineers, and production workers revealed that employees' integrity scores were correlated with managerial ratings of career potential, leadership activities, and job performance. Integrity was not related to the quality of interpersonal relationships.     

Employees’ work effort as a function of leader group prototypicality: the moderating role of team identification

The social identity model of organizational leadership (SIMOL; Hogg and van Knippenberg, 2003 was extended analyzing the degree of employees’ effort as individual outcome of leadership effectiveness. Two studies were conducted with Italian participants. Study 1 was a survey conducted with 68 employees of a medium size company. Results showed the significant two-way interaction effect of team identification × leader group prototypicality in predicting employees’ work effort. Study 2, including 124 students, was a 2 × 2 within subject design (team identification high vs. low × leader group prototypicality high vs. low) using scenarios. Results confirmed experimentally the causal relationship between such variables: subjects in condition of high team identification and high leader group prototypicality perceive leaders as more effective than the subjects in the other three conditions.     

When Do Employees Identify? An Analysis of Cross‐Sectional and Longitudinal Predictors of Training Group and Organizational Identification1

Organizational research has shown the impact of organizational identification on employees' attitudes and behavior, and its relevance for economic success ( Haslam, 2004 ). Furthermore, the necessity to differentiate levels of identification within organizations has been emphasized ( van Knippenberg & van Schie, 2000 ). Little is known, however, about predictors of different identification levels within organizations and their influence on the development of identification. In a longitudinal study with training groups of flight attendants, we investigated how foci of identification (training group, organization) were differentially predicted by cross‐sectional and longitudinal variables. Interpersonal attraction related to training group identification, whereas professional motivation related to organizational identification. Furthermore, expected job circumstances and professional motivation were longitudinal predictors for training group identification and organizational identification, respectively.     

Attribution of Influence and Charisma to the Leader: The Romance of Leadership Revisited1

This study examined the impact of performance outcomes, leadership type, leader behaviors, and observers' general belief in the importance of leadership on attributions of influence and charisma to a leader. Subjects (N= 549) read 24 versions of an organizational vignette representing all possible combinations of two performance levels, two leadership roles, and six leader behavior conditions, and were asked to evaluate the leader's level of causal influence and charisma. Results supported and extended Meindl's (1990) claim that observers' tendency to romanticize the role of a specific leader is affected by the group performance outcomes and by observers' general beliefs in the importance of leadership in organizations. The results further suggested that more influence may be attributed to a prototypical leadership role than to a less prototypical role. However, information about leader behaviors did not affect the attributions of influence and charisma to the leader. These results are discussed with reference to Conger and Kanungo's (1987) attributional theory of charismatic leadership and leadership categorization theory (Lord, 1985).     

Psychopathy,charisma, and success: A moderation modeling approach to successful psychopathy

Psychopathic traits are associated with negative outcomes; however, they have also been associated with adaptive outcomes (e.g., corporate success, etc.). We tested the Moderated-Expression Model of psychopathy in a sample of community adults (N = 315; 50.8% female; 22–65 years) utilizing a battery of self-report measures (Self-Report Psychopathy Scale; Triarchic Psychopathy Measure; Conger & Kanungo Scale of Charismatic Leadership; General Charisma Inventory; Evading Detection/Punishment; and Occupational Success). The effect of psychopathic traits on evading detection and punishment (not occupational success) was moderated by leadership (and to a lesser extent, general) charisma, net of the effects of pathological narcissism and several other covariates. These results support the Moderated-Expression Model and warrant further research on the associations among psychopathy, charisma, and success.     

The paradox of power sharing: Participative charismatic leaders have subordinates with more instead of less need for leadership

Although charismatic and participative leaders have been noted for their positive effects on criteria such as performance, job satisfaction, and commitment, few studies have looked at the relations with subordinates' leadership needs. In this study, the relations between charismatic and participative leadership, team outcomes, and a team's need for leadership were investigated. The sample consisted of South Pacific CEOs and their top-level management teams from Fiji, Tonga, Samoa, Vanuatu, and the Solomon Islands. Results showed that charismatic leadership was related to both group-level need for leadership and positive team outcomes. However, team outcomes did not mediate the relations between leadership and a team's need for leadership. Additionally, a moderator effect was found between participative leadership and charismatic leadership in explaining a team's need for leadership, implying that teams of subordinates with participative charismatic leaders need more instead of less leadership from their CEOs.     

Charismatic leadership,environmental dynamism,and performance

Most studies relating charismatic leadership to performance have limitations concerning selection of criterion measures and investigation of moderators. Therefore, this study examines relationships between charismatic leadership and multiple performance outcomes under different levels of environmental dynamism (i.e., level of environmental uncertainty, degree of technological change) and per type of Chief Executive Officer (firm owner versus managing director). Results revealed that charismatic leadership was positively related to common-source and multi-source perceptual performance outcomes (i.e., subordinates' positive work attitude) and to organization profitability, but unrelated to organization liquidity and solvency. The relationship between charismatic leadership and perceptual performance was stronger under conditions of environmental uncertainty than under conditions of environmental certainty. Furthermore, charismatic leadership was more strongly related to organization profitability for firm owners than for managing directors who do not own their firm. The results are discussed and several potentially fruitful avenues for future research on charismatic leadership and employee as well as organizational performance are presented.     

Charisma Is Contagious: The Effect of Leaders’ Charisma on Observers’ Affect1

Two studies were conducted to test the hypothesis that charismatic leadership, characterized by nonverbal expressiveness and immediacy, would lead via emotional contagion to the imitation of the leader's nonverbal behavior. In Study I, charismatic leaders were college students whose performance of a simulated campaign speech included more smiles, more intense smiles, and longer and more frequent visual attention to the audience. Observers showed higher levels of all 4 relevant behaviors while watching charismatic leaders. In Study 2, college student participants watched more and less charismatic excerpts selected from President Clinton's and ex‐President Bush's responses during their first 1992 televised debate. Comparing the same behaviors, there was a similar pattern to Study I for responses to the Clinton excerpts, and an almost reversed pattern for the Bush excerpts. The overall results support an emotional contagion effect of charismatic leadership when the leader exhibits truly charismatic behavior.     

Transformational Leadership and Creative Problem‐Solving: The Mediating Role of Psychological Safety and Reflexivity

Previous research has pointed to the importance of transformational leadership in facilitating employees' creative outcomes. However, the mechanism by which transformational leadership cultivates employees' creative problem‐solving capacity is not well understood. Drawing on theories of leadership, information processing and creativity, we proposed and tested a model in which psychological safety and reflexivity mediate the effect of transformational leadership and creative problem‐solving capacity. The results of survey data collected at three points in time indicate that transformational leadership facilitates the development of employees' creative problem‐solving capacity by shaping a climate of psychological safety conducive to reflexivity processes. However, the findings also indicate that psychological safety is related both directly and indirectly, through reflexivity, to employees' creative problem‐solving capacity. This study sheds further light on the ways in which transformational leaders help to develop and cultivate employees' capacity for creative problem‐solving.     

Is Charismatic Leadership Effective When Workers Are Pressured To Be Good Citizens?

Prior research has explored how employees’ perceptions of their leaders impact their work attitudes and behaviors. Studies have shown that charismatic leaders motivate individuals to be more engaged and to exhibit more organizational citizenship behaviors. This study considers how a moderator, citizenship pressure, affects how charismatic leaders might inspire their followers to go above and beyond and be more engaged in their work. Using a sample of 243 workers, this study's findings show that charismatic leadership has a stronger positive effect on job engagement when employees perceive less citizenship pressure. Citizenship pressure did not moderate the relationship between charismatic leadership and organizational citizenship behavior. Implications of this study include an examination of the moderating influence of citizenship pressure, a relatively new construct. Practically, the implications may shed some light on leadership factors that encourage increased effort from employees and greater employee engagement. More specifically, findings suggest that persons are motivated to exhibit more OCBs to meet high expectations of charismatic leaders. However, when seeking engagement, feeling pressure to perform these OCBs has a reverse effect as more job engagement results with less citizenship pressure. Future research suggestions and limitations are discussed.     

The Relationship Among Emotional Intelligence,Task Performance,and Organizational Citizenship Behaviors

Theory suggests that individuals who are high in emotional intelligence are likely to exhibit a higher level of performance outcomes. However, research acknowledges the need to further establish the connection between emotional intelligence and work outcomes. We address this call by empirically examining the relationship between emotional intelligence and two aspects of work outcomes (task performance and two forms of organizational citizenship behaviors, altruism and compliance). Emotional intelligence was assessed by Schutte et al.'s (1998) self-report measure of emotional intelligence, whereas work outcomes were assessed by the employees' supervisors. The findings show positive relationships between emotional intelligence and employees' work outcomes.     

Personality and Charismatic Leadership in Context: The Moderating Role of Situational Stress

We adopt an interactionist perspective and extend previous work on personality and charismatic leadership by considering the relationship between them across contexts. Based on Gray's reinforcement sensitivity theory, we expected the relationships between approach‐oriented dispositions and charisma to diminish under conditions of high workload‐induced stress. In a large‐scale lab study with 201 groups (Study 1, N = 721 participants), we manipulated conditions of stress and tested the interaction of stress with leaders’ extraversion and openness to experience in predicting their charismatic behaviors. We then tested, in a field study of 71 executives (Study 2, N = 256 participants), the interaction of employees’ reported stress with leaders’ stimulation values in predicting their charismatic behavior. In support of our hypotheses, the relationships between approach‐oriented dispositions and charisma were significantly weaker when stress was high. We discuss theoretical and practical implications of this finding, in particular given that it is in stressful conditions under which charismatic leadership is said to be most important.     

Doing it for the team: Soccer coaches' identity leadership predicts players' effort,turnover intentions,and performance

ObjectivesThe present research investigates how coaches' identity leadership predicts individual and team outcomes in soccer. Specifically, we tested hypotheses that coaches' identity leadership would be associated with players' perceptions of (a) higher team effort, (b) lower turnover intentions, (c) better individual performance, and (d) better team performance. In addition, we aimed to examine the relationship between coaches' identity leadership and increased team identification of players and the degree to which the associations of identity leadership with these various outcomes were mediated by players' strength of team identification.DesignWe conducted a cross-sectional study of male soccer players in Germany.MethodThe final sample consisted of 247 male soccer players nested in 24 teams that completed measures of their coaches' identity leadership, team identification, team effort, turnover intentions, and individual/team performance.ResultsAnalysis revealed a positive relationship between coaches' identity leadership and team effort, as well as individual and team performance. Moreover, coaches' identity leadership was associated with lower turnover intentions. There was also evidence that the relationships between identity leadership and the investigated outcomes were mediated by team identification.ConclusionsThese findings support claims that coaches' identity leadership is associated with better individual and team outcomes because it helps to build a sense of ‘we’ and ‘us’ in the team they lead.     

The Cognitive and Affective Components of Organisational Identification: The Role of Perceived Support Values and Charismatic Leadership

This study set out to investigate how the strength of organisational identification is related to organisational support values and charismatic leadership. The perception of organisational support values by an individual employee is a contextual factor which determines whether (a) organisational attributes similar to the self‐concept become salient leading to cognitive identification, and (b) an affective tie between the individual employee and the work organisation is developed. Charismatic leadership, on the other hand, builds a group identity among followers primarily by emotion‐arousing leadership behavior, and therefore was hypothesised to relate more strongly to affective, rather than cognitive, identification. Two hundred employees from a public organisation filled in a number of questionnaire measures of organisational support values, charismatic leadership, and organisational identification. The findings showed that support values predicted both cognitive and affective identification, whereas charismatic leadership was a predictor of affective identification. There was also a significant interaction effect of organisational support values and charismatic leadership on affective identification; in the condition of low support value orientation, charismatic leadership was shown to be positively associated with affective identification. These findings indicate that organisational values are basic elements of self‐implicating processes in organisational contexts, and their practical implications are discussed.     

On the relations among work value orientations,psychological need satisfaction and job outcomes: A self‐determination theory approach

Using self‐determination theory, two studies found that holding an extrinsic, relative to an intrinsic, work value orientation was associated with less positive outcomes (i.e. less satisfaction with, dedication to and vitality while on the job) and more negative outcomes (i.e. higher emotional exhaustion, short‐lived satisfaction after successful goal‐attainment, and turn‐over intention). These relations were not limited to job outcomes, but also emerged using indicators of employees' general mental health. Moreover, income level did not moderate these relations. Study 2 found that holding an extrinsic, relative to an intrinsic, work value orientation was detrimental to employees' job outcomes because these orientations thwarted the satisfaction of the basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness at work.     

Transformational leadership and customer service: A moderated mediation model of negative affectivity and emotion regulation

Integrating theories from leadership, emotion management, affectivity, and customer service, this study examines how transformational leadership leads to favourable customer intentions via the mediation of service employees' emotion regulation, job satisfaction, and their service performance and via the moderation of employee negative affectivity. Results obtained from data of 204 matched sets of managers, service employees, and customers show that the effect of transformational leadership on amplification of pleasant emotions was conditioned on service employees' negative affectivity. Employee service performance partially mediated the effect of job satisfaction on customer outcomes. Finally, overall results reveal that transformational leadership and amplification of pleasant emotions were more strongly related to the customer outcomes, as mediated through the intervening variables in the model, when negative affectivity was high than when negative affectivity was low. Results have implications for how service workers with negative affectivity can manage their emotions to achieve effective service outcomes through interactions with a leader, how the effect of transformational leadership can be bounded, and how transformational leadership and emotion regulation are relevant to customer service.     

魅力型领导与下属工作投入：双维认同构念的中介机制

本研究旨在探讨组织认同和领导认同在魅力型领导对下属工作投入的影响过程中的中介机制。全文以魅力型领导和认同感理论为基础,以来自国内多家企业的252名员工为样本进行数据分析,结果发现下属的组织认同和领导认同作为认同感的双维构念在魅力型领导对下属工作投入的影响过程中具有中介作用。其中,组织认同在此过程中具有部分中介作用,而领导认同则发挥完全中介作用,而且组织认同和领导认同在此过程中同时存在,互不排斥。     

Charismatic Leadership and Cooperation in Social Dilemmas: A Matter of Transforming Motives?1

The present experiment examined whether leaders high in charisma are able to motivate decision‐makers to cooperate more in a public goods dilemma. On the basis of charismatic leadership theories, it was expected that a charismatic leader would be able to transform people's motives beyond self‐interest, consequently increasing cooperation. This transformation effect was expected to occur among individuals aimed at maximizing their own self‐interest (i.e., pro‐selfs), but not among those aimed at maximizing joint or collective outcomes (i.e., pro‐socials). Furthermore, leader's charisma was experimentally manipulated by means of describing the leader as either self‐sacrificing or benefiting. The results revealed that self‐sacrificing leaders, contrary to benefiting leaders, were perceived as more charismatic and were able to motivate decision‐makers to cooperate more. The latter effect appeared to be more pronounced among pro‐selfs rather than pro‐socials, as such supporting the transformational idea of charismatic leaders. Further results showed that this behavioral effect was mediated by perceptions of legitimacy. The meaning and conception of charismatic leadership in decision‐making situations are discussed by using insights from the social dilemma and charismatic leadership literature.